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The European environment — state and outlook 2020

Publication Created 25 Apr 2019 Published 04 Dec 2019
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Knowledge for transition to a sustainable Europe
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Publication Created 25 Apr 2019 Published 04 Dec 2019
Knowledge for transition to a sustainable Europe

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: 978-92-9480-090-9
: TH-04-19-541-EN-N

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Projected change in annual (left) and summer (right) precipitation, 2071-2100 Projected changes in annual (left) and summer (right) precipitation (%) in the period 2071-2100 compared to the baseline period 1971-2000 for the forcing scenario RCP 8.5. Model simulations are based on the multi-model ensemble average of RCM simulations from the EURO-CORDEX initiative.
Organic agricultural land coverage in Europe, 1985-2015 The figure presents organic agricultural land area in Europe in the period 1985-2017.
Cumulative global fleet of battery electric vehicles (BEV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) in different parts of the world The figure presents the total global stock of electric vehicles in key regions, including both battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).
Evolution of total European energy RD&D spending by technology (USD-million, 2017 prices) (based on IEA estimates) The figure presents European spending on research, development and demonstration for energy technologies, fossil fuels, hydrogen, nuclear, renowables and others.
Demanding environmental policy is associated with greater competitiveness and more eco-innovation in EEA member countries The figure includes all EEA member countries for which data are available on stringency of environmental policy. Countries are positioned according to their ranking in the WEF global competiveness index 2015 (x-axis) and the OECD stringency of environmental policy index (y-axis). The position of countries in the EU eco-innovation ranking are indicated using colours.
Fuel efficiency and fuel consumption in private cars, 1990–2011 This figure presents the fuel efficiency and fuel consumption trends for private cars in the EU-28 in the period 1990 to 2015. The variables included are number of cars, average CO2 emissions of cars, average fuel consumption of cars, GDP, total distance travelled by cars and total energy consumptions of cars.
Energy consumption by transport mode Energy consumption by transport mode
Final energy consumption by sector Final energy consumption by sector
The SDGs framework through a system lens SDGs interactions
Overview of non-binding objectives and binding targets of EU 30 environmental policy 2015-2050 The figure shows non-binding environmental objectives and binding environmental targets for the EU-28 as a whole in the period 2015-2050. Each objective/target is shown for the year of its implementation deadline.
EU GHG emissions in the transport sector, 1990–2017 Comparison of GHG emissions with 1990 levels (1990 = 100 %)
Development of the Gross Nitrogen Balance, Nitrogen use efficiency and GVA in the EU 28 The graph shows the development of the Gross Nitrogen Balance (GNB) (kg nutrient/ ha Utilised Agricultural Area (UAA)) for the EU 28 over the period from 2004 to 2015, together with the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and GVA of the agricultural industry (values at current prices). For displaying all thre parameters and the development of their trends, an index is used setting 2005-values = 1
Estimated number of IED installations covered by BAT conclusions Estimated number of IED installations covered by BAT conclusions
Fraction of REACH chemicals which are persistent and mobile, and found in surface water Note: Logarithmic scale; PM: substances that are Persistent and Mobile.
Total pollutant emissions to water and transfers to UWWTPs by industry for EEA-33 in 2007 to 2017 by pollutant group Total pollutant emissions to water and transfers to UWWTPs by industry from 2007 to 2017 by pollutant group
Key industrial air pollutant and GHG emissions for EEA-33 in 2007 to 2016 by industry sector Key industrial air pollutant and GHG emissions for EEA-33 in 2007 to 2016 by industry sector
Country comparison - Implied emission factors for SO2 emissions from LCPs burning predominantly solid fuel in 2005, 2010 and 2015 Country comparison Implied emission factors for SO2 emissions from LCPs burning predominantly solid fuel in 2005, 2010 and 2015
Air pollutant and GHG emissions as a percentage of total EEA-33 pollutant emissions in 2016, by industry sector Air pollutant and GHG emissions as a percentage of total EEA-33 pollutant emissions in 2016
Change in quiet areas between 2012 and 2017, for selected cities Data submited by countries up to 01/01/2019
Country comparison - Percentage of people exposed to high noise levels by country in 2017 Data submited by countries up to 01/01/2019
Trends in waste generation (excluding major mineral wastes), economic development and population, EEA-33 The figure shows the generation of total waste excluding major mineral waste compared to the developments in GDP and population.
Resource productivity in Europe, 2000, 2008 and 2017 Comparison of resource productivity, country by country, ordered from highest to lowest in 2017
Trend in materials use by type of material, EU-28, 2000-2018 Use of materials in EU28, 2000-2017, by four categories of materials
EU urban population exposed to air pollutant concentrations above selected EU air quality standards and WHO AQ guidelines The rationale for selection of pollutants and corresponding WHO guidelines is given in the specification section of indicator CSI 004.
Country comparison of the PM2.5 concentrations in 2017 The graph is based on annual mean concentration PM2.5 values. For each country, together with the number of stations considered, the lowest, highest and median values (in µg/m3) recorded at its stations are given. The rectangles mark the 25th and 75th percentiles. At 25 % of the stations, levels are below the lower percentile; at 25 % of the stations, concentrations are above the upper percentile. The limit value set by EU legislation is marked by the upper horizontal line. The WHO AQG is marked by the lower horizontal line.
Value added and employment in EU-28: total economy vs EGSS Trend in employment and gross value added
Emission reductions in 2030 relative to 2005 for the REF and CEP scenarios (EU-28) Emission reduction for main air pollutants in 2030 relative to 2005
EU progress in meeting 2010 emission ceilings set out in the NEC Directive and the 2020/2030 reduction commitments National Emission Ceilings Directive: Progress in meeting the 2010 emission ceilingsand the 2020 as well as 2030 reduction commitments.
EU-28 emissions, 2000-2016 (% of 2000 levels) Evolution of main air pollutant emissions and of the gross domestic product (GDP) in the EU-28; Values for 2000-2017 are expressed as percentage of 2000 levels. GDP is expressed in chain linked volumes (2010), as percentage of the 2000 level. Methane (CH4) emissions are total emissions (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control sectors 1-7) excluding sector 5: Land-use, land-use change and forestry. The present emission inventories include only anthropogenic non-methane volatile organic compound (NMVOC) emissions.
Primary and final energy consumption in the EU, 2005-2016, 2020 and 2030 targets and 2050 indicative levels of the EU Energy Roadmap The solid line shows the development of primary energy consumption and final energy consumption. The dashed lines show the linear trajectories until 2030 and to the 2050 scenario results from the Commission's 2050 long term strategy.
Projected welfare impacts of climate change for different EU regions and sectors for two emissions scenarios This figure 23 the welfare losses (as percentage of GDP) for the six sectoral impacts in the five European regions and the EU-28 in both the high warming and the 2° C scenarios. The EU welfare loss under the high warming scenario is estimated to be around 1.9% of GDP (€240 bn) and could be reduced by approximately 2/3 in the 2° C scenario (€79 bn).
Share of EU energy consumption from renewable sources, 2005–2050 The solid line shows the development of the share of renewables in EU energy consumption based on historic data. The dashed lines show expected progress to 2020 based on projection data. The dots illustrate the 2020, 2030 targets.The 2050 scenario range illustrates the an average of eight scenarios published in the Commission's 2050 long term strategy.
EU part of the regional sea surface area (km2) and the area covered by MPAs in 2016 (dark colour and in %) EU part of the regional sea surface area (km2) and the area covered by MPAs in 2016 (dark colour and in %)
Economic damage caused by climate-related extreme events Economic damage caused by weather and climate-related extreme events
Timelines for achieving good environmental staus as reported by members states Timelines for achieving good environmental staus as reported by members states
Global average near surface temperature since the pre-industrial period Global average near surface temperature since the pre-industrial period
Drivers of GHG emission reductions in the EU-28, 1990-2017 Drivers of GHG emission reductions from 1990 to 2017.
GHG emissions by main sector in the EU-28, 1990-2017 GHG emissions by main sector from 1990 to 2016.
GHG emissions trends and projections in the EU-28, 1990-2035 Historic trends from 1990 to 2017 are represented in solid lines. Projections until 2035 are represented in dashed lines. The upper line represents the scenario "with existing measures", while the lower line represents the scenario "with additional measures". EU targets and objectives for 2020, 2030 and 2050 are represented as bullets.
Trend in the status of stocks assessment and the progress made in GES assessment in the North East Atlantic and Baltic Sea since 1945 This figure shows trends in the status of assessed fish stocks between 1947 and 2017, expressed in two metrics: fishing mortality (F) and reproductive capacity (i.e. spawning stock biomass (SSB)). It reflects their average deviation relative to policy thresholds for Good Environmental Status (GES) (i.e. Fmsy and MSY B trigger respectively)*. For fishing mortality, 1 is a target (Fmsy), above which exploitation is unsustainable, while for reproductive capacity, 1 is a precautionary limit (MSY B trigger), below which there is a high risk that it is impaired.
Sea surface temperature Time series of annual average sea surface temperature (°C), referenced to the average temperature between 1993 and 2012, in the global ocean and in each of the European seas.
Number of people exposed to Lden ≥ 55 dB and estimated percentage change between 2017-2030 Outlooks for 2020 and 2030
Number of people exposed to Lnight ≥ 50 dB in Europe, based on areas covered by strategic noise maps Data submited by countries up to 01/01/2019
Number of people exposed to Lden ≥ 55 dB in Europe, based on areas covered by strategic noise maps Data submited by countries up to 01/01/2019
Country comparison - Reductions in PCB emissions per capita in EEA-33 countries Different scales between the two figures. No data available for Liechtenstein and Switzerland. Emissions reported by Czechia, Cyprus, Malta and the Netherlands are close to zero, and Turkey reported zero PCB emissions.
Progress towards selected waste management targets The figure shows the landfilling rate for municipal waste by country. Each dot represents a country. The boxes represent the upper and lower quartiles, and the line in the box shows the median.
Country comparison - Recycling rates of municipal waste, 2004 and 2017 Recycling rates of municipal waste in 2004 and 2017
Circular material use rate
Trends in number of non-indigenous species in Europe’ seas Cumulative number of new non-indigenous species (NIS) aggregated per 6 years in all European Seas, 1949-2017, per functional group (Invertebrates, vertebrates and primary producers, (EU + non EU)
Mean annual productivity of the White-tailed eagle in the Baltic Proper, Swedish coastal area Mean annual productivity of the White-tailed eagle in the Baltic Proper, Swedish coastal area
Change in six major land cover types in the EEA-39 during the period 2000-2018 The chart shows the periodical change of land cover classes, expressed in km2 and calculated as a yearly value.
Country comparison: land take and land recultivation in EEA39 in the period 2012-2018 (in proportion of country area). The chart shows the area of land take and recultivation for the last Corine Land Cover observation period 2012-2018 for each EEA39 country. Both land take and recultivation are expressed in m2/km2 of the country area for the sake of comparability.
Trends in conservation status of habitats assessed as unfavourable at EU level The number of assessements is indicated in parentheses. The total number of assessments is 804.
Concentrations of BOD5, orthophosphate, and nitrates in rivers, and nitrates in groundwater. Concentrations of BOD5, orthophosphate, and nitrates in rivers, and nitrates in groundwater.
Common Birds in Europe, population index Common bird index shows the population trends of farmland, forest and all common bird species
Long-term trends in eutrophication in the Baltic Sea The chart shows the annual classified Eutrophication status in each of 9 basins of the Baltic Sea over the period from 1901 to 2012. The status is assigned one of five classes "High", "Good", "Moderate", "Poor" or "Bad", depending on the Eutrophcation Ratio calculated by the HEAT tool. See more details in Andersen et al. (2015) Biol. Rev. 1 doi: 10.1111/brv.12221
The EU’s consumption-based performance for selected planetary boundaries The study takes a conservative approach, as it calculates the European share based on the lower end values of the global zone of uncertainty de ned by Ste en et al. (2015). For example, the global zone of uncertainty for Freshwater is de ned as 4000-6000 km3 in Ste en et al. (2015). This study uses 4000 km3 as the basis for calculating the European share. In some cases (indicated in brackets) slightly di erent control variables have been used than in Ste en et al. (2015).The yellow zone of uncertainty represents the average range across six principles to allocate a European share of the global safe operating space (equality, needs, rights to development, sovereignity, capability).More information in the forthcoming EEA report
Correlation between Ecological Footprint and Human Development Index Correlation between Ecological Footprint and Human Development Index (HDI). HDI values above 0.8 are defined as "Living well", Ecological footprint values below 1.7 are defined as "Living within environmental limits".The value of 1.7 refers to the average biocapacity per person globally in 2014 (see also http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/exploreData. The HDI value of 0.8 refers to 'very high human development', according to UNDP (see http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/energising-human-development)
Trends in global domestic extraction of materials, 1970 – 2017 The graph distinguishes 4 material groups (in tonnes): biomass, non-metallic minerales, fossil fuels, metal ores
Trends in total population by world region, 1950–2100 final demand: footprint of total final demand, including both in use impact or resource use and production impact or resource use water consumption footprint blue and green water consumption energy use footprint: energy carrier use land use footprint: arable land and permanent pasture material use footprint: use of primary raw materials
Trends in conservation status of non-bird species assessed as unfavourable at EU level These are species from the Habitats Directive. The number of assessments is indicated in parenthesis. The total number of assessments is 2 665.
Complementarity between European designations (Natura 2000 and Emerald networks) and national designations by share of terrestrial area The overlap for Switzerland relates to Emerald Network sites rather than Natura 2000 sites. CDDA = Common Database of Designated Areas; N2000 = Natura 2000.
Area of Natura 2000 sites designated under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives in 2017 Trend of sites designated under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives
European grassland butterfly indicator The indicator the population trends of European grassland butterflies
Trends in total population by world region, 1950–2100 Total population (both sexes) in millions. The period 1950-2015 is based on UN estimates, while the period 2020 to 2100 is based on the UN medium variant projection.
Indicators for global socio-economic development and the structure and functioning of the Earth system Full supplementary data available from www.igbp.net or by contacting the authors
Accumulation rates of Cadmium (left) and Copper (right), 2010 Map of accumulation rates of Cadmium (left) and Copper (right) for the year 2010 in agricultural top soils (upper 20 cm). Data on: (i) manure application, affecting metal inputs, is based on livestock statistics from EUROSTAT, (ii) fertilizer inputs and crop yields , affecting metal uptake, are based on FAOstat, and (iii) soil metal concentrations, affecting metal leaching, are based on GEMAS (Reimann et al. 2014a,b)
Percentage of water bodies, not in good chemical status, with uPBT, per river basic district. Surface water bodies failing to achieve good chemical status, by RBDs with uPBTs.
Spatial pattern of net land take in EEA-39 in the period 2000-2018 Net land take as a result of urban sprawl is measured from the Copernicus Corine Land Cover dataset between 2000-2018. The map shows for each grid cell the area in km² which was covered with sealed surfaces. For visualisation land take data is presented in a 10km grid.
Trend in absolute sea level across Europe based on satellite measurements Spatial distribution of trends in mean sea level in European seas (January 1993- December 2017)
Nitrogen surplus and exceedances of critical nitrogen inputs to agricultural land in view of adverse impacts on water quality The map shows the calculated nitrogen surplus (inputs minus crop removal) and exceedance of critical nitrogen inputs to agricultural land in view of adverse impacts on water
Projected change in meteorological drought frequency between the present (1981-2010) and the mid-century 21st century (2041-2070) in Europe, under two emissions scenarios Left map: Scenario RCP4.5; right map: Scenario RCP8.5. The lines represent the areas in which at least two-third of the simulations used agree on the sign of the change.
Years of life lost (YLL) per 100 000 inhabitants attributable to exposure to PM2.5 in European countries (2016) The map shows the number of years of life lost per 100 000 inhabitants attributable to exposure to PM2.5. Countries are ranked in quintiles.
Fragmentation increase in Europe during 2009-2015 The map shows the difference of the years 2015 and 2009 and presents the increase in fragmentation in that period. The original 100m values were resampled to a 5 km grid for visualisation purposes.
Copper concentration in European Union soils Map of Copper concentrations in European Union agricultural top soils (upper 20 cm).
Arable land and permanent crops gains and losses between 2000 and 2018 This map shows the loss and gain of arable land and permanent crops. Changes are monitored at 1 ha level whereas the map is aggregated in a 10 km2 grid.
Archived
Percentage of water bodies, not in good ecological status or potential, per river basic district The map present the proportion of surface water bodies (rivers, lakes, transitional and coastal waters) in less than good ecological status per River Basin District.
Percentage of water bodies, not in good chemical status, without uPBT, per river basic district. Surface water bodies failing to achieve good chemical status, by RBDs without uPBTs.
Archived
Projected change in annual and summer precipitation Projected changes in annual (left) and summer (right) precipitation (%) in the period 2071-2100 compared to the baseline period 1971-2000 for the forcing scenario RCP 8.5. Model simulations are based on the multi-model ensemble average of RCM simulations from the EURO-CORDEX initiative.
Overview of National Adaptation Strategies and Plans Countries that have dopted a National Adaptation Strategy (NAS) or a NAS and a National Adaptation Plan (NAP).
Annual mean NO2 concentrations in 2017 Observed concentrations of NO2 in 2017. The map shows the NO2 annual mean concentrations. The dots in the last two colour categories indicate stations with exceedances of the annual limit value (40 µg/m3). Only stations with more than 75 % of valid data have been included in the map.
Status of the assessed European commercial fish and shellfish stocks in relation to Good Environmental Status (GES) per EU marine region in 2015-2017 This figure shows the status of the assessed European commercially exploited fish and shellfish stocks in relation to ‘good environmental status’ (GES) per EU marine region in 2017 (although for the Mediterranean and Black Seas, data refer to 2016). Stocks for which adequate information is available to determine GES for fishing mortality (F) and/or reproductive capacity (spawning stock biomass (SSB)) are included (where Z is the total number of stocks, Y is the total number of assessed stocks and X is the number of stocks for which adequate information is available to determine GES on the basis of these two criteria). A distinction is made between stocks that are (1) in good status based on both F and SSB; (2) in good status based on only one criteria, F or SSB (either because one of the two criteria are not in good status or there is only one available criteria and it is in good status); and (3) not in good status (based on both F and SSB or there is only one criteria available and it is not in good status). As assessments are carried out in a multiannual cycle within the Mediterranean Sea, the number of stocks included for this region depends on the period covered. See the Methodology section for further information on how good status is determined.
Number of extreme heat waves in future climates under two different climate forcing scenarios The top maps show the median of the number of heat waves in a multi-model ensemble of the near future (2020–2052) and the latter half of the century (2068–2100) under the RCP4.5 scenario, and the lower maps are for the same time periods but under RCP8.5
Chemical risk estimates for European water bodies The map displays the fraction of sites where the maximum chemical concentration exceeds the acute risk threshold (left) and the mean chemical concentration exceeds the chronic risk threshold (right) for any organism group. The color code in the map shows the level of chemical risk, from low chemical risk (green) to high chemical risk (red).
Draft
Air pollution mitigation measure in place and planned in the pilot cities Air pollution mitigation measure in place and planned in the pilot cities
Draft
Projected change in meteorological drought frequency between the periods 1981-2010 and 2041-2070 under two climate change scenarios Left map: Scenario RCP4.5 (Representative Concentration Pathway). Right map: Scenario RCP8.5 (Representative Concentration Pathway).The line pattern represents the areas in which at least two-third of the simulations used agree on the sign of the change.

Interactive maps

News and articles

What is harming Europe’s nature? European nature is suffering the consequences of long-term exploitation and pollution. Nature keeps providing us with food, clothes, medicines, housing, energy and other resources, but ecosystems and many plants and animals are in decline, sometimes being pushed to extinction. What are the human activities that harm nature the most and how can we stop and reverse current biodiversity loss?
Building the foundations for fundamental change Achieving sustainability will require fundamental, transformative, and cross-cutting change, entailing major shifts in society’s goals, incentives, technologies, social practices and norms, as well as in knowledge systems and governance approaches.
Climate change adaptation is key to avoid disruption of EU agricultural commodities imports Stepping up European Union (EU) support for international adaptation, together with trade diversification are key actions the EU can take to lessen the impacts of climate change on agricultural trade, according to a European Environment Agency (EEA) briefing published today.
Land and soil pollution — widespread, harmful and growing What do many vineyards scattered across idyllic landscapes, industrial sites and landfills have in common? The presence of chemicals might be the answer. From heavy metals to organic pollutants and microplastics, the soil in which we grow our food and the land on which we build our homes might be contaminated with different pollutants. Contaminants are widespread and are accumulating in Europe’s land and soils. How can we tackle this problem?
The challenge of reducing industrial pollution Industrial pollution in Europe is decreasing, thanks to a blend of regulation, developments in manufacturing and environmental initiatives. However, industry continues to pollute and moving towards zero pollution in this sector is an ambitious challenge.
Living healthily in a chemical world We can categorise pollution by where we find it — in soil, water or air — or we can look at different pollution types, such as chemicals. Synthetic chemicals are all around us. Some of them, however, can also be very harmful to our health and the environment. How can we limit the negative effects of chemicals that have become a part of our current way of life?
Towards zero pollution in Europe Last spring, a coronavirus reshaped the world in a matter of weeks. Many of the things that we had taken for granted were suddenly not available to us anymore. The pandemic caught the world by surprise, but, if you had asked a scientist working in a field related to infectious diseases, this was only a matter of time.
SOER 2020 - At a glance The European environment — state and outlook 2020 (SOER 2020) comes at a crucial time of urgent sustainability challenges that require urgent systemic solutions. The overarching challenge of this century is how we achieve development across the world that balances societal, economic and environmental considerations. Sustainability needs to become the guiding principle for ambitious and coherent policies and actions across society.
Europe’s state of the environment 2020: change of direction urgently needed to face climate change challenges, reverse degradation and ensure future prosperity Europe will not achieve its 2030 goals without urgent action during the next 10 years to address the alarming rate of biodiversity loss, increasing impacts of climate change and the overconsumption of natural resources. The European Environment Agency’s (EEA) latest ‘State of the Environment’ report published today states that Europe faces environmental challenges of unprecedented scale and urgency. The report says, however, there is reason for hope, amid increased public awareness of the need to shift to a sustainable future, technological innovations, growing community initiatives and stepped up EU action like the European Green Deal.

Related briefings

Reaching 2030’s residual municipal waste target — why recycling is not enough Municipal waste accounts for 27% of total waste generated in the EU (excluding mineral waste). If not managed properly, it can have significant negative impacts on both human health and the environment. The 2020 EU circular economy action plan aims to halve the quantity of municipal waste not recycled or prepared for reuse by 2030, while all EU Member States must recycle or prepare for reuse at least 60% of their municipal waste by 2030. This briefing explores how these targets are linked and how more ambitious waste prevention actions will be key to reaching them.
Global climate change impacts and the supply of agricultural commodities to Europe The EEA has addressed the consequences of climate change in numerous reports, including Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2016, the 2019 report Climate change adaptation in the agriculture sector in Europe and the European environment — state and outlook 2020 report. This briefing analyses the implications for Europe of the impact of global climate change on agricultural trade.
The European environment — state and outlook 2020: knowledge for transition to a sustainable Europe Europe will not achieve its 2030 goals without urgent action during the next 10 years to address the alarming rate of biodiversity loss, increasing impacts of climate change and the overconsumption of natural resources. The European Environment Agency’s (EEA) latest ‘State of the Environment’ report states that Europe faces environmental challenges of unprecedented scale and urgency.
Archived
The European environment — state and outlook 2020: knowledge for transition to a sustainable Europe Europe will not achieve its 2030 goals without urgent action during the next 10 years to address the alarming rate of biodiversity loss, increasing impacts of climate change and the overconsumption of natural resources. The European Environment Agency’s (EEA) latest ‘State of the Environment’ report states that Europe faces environmental challenges of unprecedented scale and urgency.

Related indicators

Use of freshwater resources in Europe Overall, water abstraction and economic growth in the EU showed absolute decoupling over the period 2000–2017. Total water abstraction declined by 17 %, while total gross value added generated from all economic sectors increased by 59 %. However, water scarcity conditions and drought events continue to cause significant risks in southern Europe, as well as in specific areas of other European regions. Agriculture remained the sector exerting the highest pressure on renewable freshwater resources overall, being responsible for 59 % of total water use in Europe in 2017. This is mainly because of agriculture levels in southern Europe. In 2017, 64 % of total water abstraction was from rivers and 24 % from groundwater. Annual renewable freshwater resources per inhabitant showed a decreasing trend across all regions except eastern Europe over the period 1990-2017. Large decreases were observed in Spain (-65 %), Malta (-54 %) and Cyprus (-32 %). Climate change and population increase exerted high pressures on renewable freshwater resources in Europe over this period. The increasing frequency and magnitude of extreme droughts and floods enhance the risk of there being reduced volumes of renewable freshwater resources in the future.
Landscape fragmentation pressure and trends in Europe In 2015, on average, there were around 1.5 fragmented landscape elements per km 2 in the European Union  [1] , a 3.7 % increase compared with 2009. Approximately 1.13 million km 2 , around 28 % of the area of the EU  [1] , was strongly fragmented i n 2015 , a 0.7 % increase compared with 2009. There was less of an increase in fragmented landscape elements and in the area of strongly fragmented landscape between 2012 and 2015 than between 2009 and 2012 (1.4 and 0.18 percentage points, respectively). Arable lands and permanent croplands (around 42 .6 %) and pastures and farmland mosaics (around 40.2 %) were most affected by strong fragmentation pressure in 2015 in the EU. Between 2009 and 2015, however, the largest increase in the area of strongly fragmented landscape was in grasslands/pastures and in farmland mosaics.   Luxembourg (91 %), Belgium (83 %) and Malta (70 %) had the largest proportions of strongly fragmented landscape in 2015 (as a proportion of their country area). The Baltic countries and Finland and Sweden were on average the least fragmented countries in the EU. Between 2009 and 2015, the area of strongly fragmented landscape increased most in Croatia, as well as in Greece, Hungary and Poland. [1]  Romania is excluded because of the poor coverage of fragmentation geometry data in 2009.  
Land take in Europe Despite a reduction in the last decade (land take was over 1000km2/year between 2000-2006), land take in EU28 still amounted to 539km2/year between 2012-2018. The net land take concept combines land take with land return to non-artificial land categories (re-cultivation). While some land was re-cultivated in the EU-28 in the period  2000-2018, 11 times more land was taken. Between 2000 and 2018, 78 % of land take in the EU-28 affected agricultural areas, i.e. arable lands and pastures, and mosaic farmlands. From 2000 to 2018, land take consumed 0.6 % of all arable lands and permanent crops, 0.5 % of all pastures and mosaic farmlands, and 0.3 % of all grasslands into urban areas. In proportion to their area, Cyprus, the Netherlands and Albania saw the largest amount of land take between 2000 and 2018. The  re-cultivation of land increased from 2012 to 2018, led by Luxembourg, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and Belgium.   The main drivers of land take during 2000-2018 were industrial and commercial land use as well as extension of residential areas and construction sites.  
Land recycling and densification Land recycling is still low in all European countries: on average, land recycling accounted for only 13.5 % of total land consumption in European cities in the 2006-2012 period. The land use densification process, i.e. when land development makes maximum use of existing infrastructure, accounts for the largest proportion of land recycling. However, in most countries, land take dominates over densification in total land management with the exception of Finland and France. Grey recycling, i.e. internal conversions between residential and/or non-residential land cover types, is secondary to densification, ranging from 14 % to less than 1 % of total land consumption. Land take predominates over grey recycling in total land management in all countries. Green recycling, i.e. the development of green urban areas using previously built-up areas, is an important trend that reverses soil sealing, but it is a marginal process in all countries and, on average, it accounts for only 0.2 % of total land consumption.

Related infographics

Related publications

SOER 2020 Executive Summary The European environment — state and outlook 2020
Sustainability transitions: policy and practice This report aims to go beyond theoretical discussions to explore the practical implications of transitions research for policy and practice, building on the insights from past assessments. It highlights the growing links to established EU policy frameworks and identifies how transitions thinking is being operationalised at different scales across Europe. Co-authored by leading experts in transitions studies, the report has also benefited strongly from interactions with EEA partners in multiple policy areas, in particular, at a workshop co-hosted with the European Commission's European Political Strategy Centre in July 2018.
Adaptation challenges and opportunities for the European energy system Building a climate‑resilient low‑carbon energy system
Natural capital accounting in support of policymaking in Europe Maintaining 'natural capital', i.e. ecosystems and the services they provide, is fundamental to human economic activity and well-being. The need to conserve and enhance natural capital is therefore an explicit policy target in the EU's Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 and its Seventh Environment Action Programme. Approaches to measuring the stocks of natural resources that yield benefits as natural capital have gained considerable traction in recent decades. By providing regular, objective data that are consistent with wider statistical data, natural capital accounting can provide the fundamental evidence base required for informing economic and environmental decision making that delivers on these ambitions for natural capital.
Unequal exposure and unequal impacts Unequal exposure and unequal impacts: social vulnerability to air pollution, noise and extreme temperatures in Europe
Chemicals in European waters This report’s aim is to improve understanding of which chemicals continue to pose significant risks to the environment, especially when they are present in water. It also looks at how better knowledge and understanding can help to improve controls to minimise harm. The report gives an overview of information about pollutants used in the assessment of water quality under the Water Framework Directive, and describes some of the newer techniques available for the assessment of water quality.
Environmental indicator report 2018 - In support to the monitoring of the 7th Environment Action Programme This report gives an overview of the EU’s progress towards 29 environmental policy objectives. These are relevant to the achievement of the 7th Environment Action Programme (EAP) three key priority objectives: natural capital; resource-efficient, low-carbon economy; and people’s health and well-being.
Trends and projections in Europe 2018 - Tracking progress towards Europe's climate and energy targets This report is part of the ‘Trends and Projections in Europe: 2018: Tracking progress towards Europe’s climate and energy targets,’ package. It is based on the most recent reported and approximated data from EU Member States on greenhouse gas emissions, renewable energy uptake and energy consumption.
European waters -- Assessment of status and pressures 2018 The main aim of EU water policy is to ensure that a sufficient quantity of good-quality water is available for both people's needs and the environment. The Water Framework Directive (WFD), which came into force in 2000, established a framework for the assessment, management, protection and improvement of the quality of water resources across the EU. Since December 2015, EU Member States have been publishing the second river basin management plans (RBMPs) for achieving the environmental objectives of the WFD. These plans are updates of the first RBMPs, which were published in 2009.
Sharing adaptation information across Europe This report provides an evaluation on how the growing knowledge on adaptation in Europe has been captured and how it is presented on the web-based European Climate Adaptation Platform (Climate-ADAPT) and shared across Europe.
Perspectives on transitions to sustainability The overall ambition of this report is to provide an initial analytical overview of framings, conceptualisations and selected analytical tools relating to sustainability transitions and transformations, bringing together insights from multiple academic communities. The report aims to illustrate how these different perspectives relate to each other and to begin to explore what potential guidance they offer for policymaking and governance more broadly.
EEA framework for international engagement This framework for international engagement serves as an operational complement to the EEA International Strategy included in the Agency's Multiannual Work Programme. It provides a structure to support the planning and carrying out of EEA's international activities, specifying the orientation of EEA work in the variety of international contexts described.
Environmental indicator report 2017 — In support to the monitoring of the 7th Environment Action Programme This report gives an overview of the EU’s progress towards 29 environmental policy objectives. These are relevant to the achievement of the 7th Environment Action Programme (EAP) three key priority objectives: natural capital; resource-efficient, low-carbon economy; and people’s health and well-being.
Circular by design - Products in the circular economy This report explores the circular economy from a product perspective, applying a systemic approach and transition theory. Drivers of product design and usage are discussed in the context of emerging consumption trends and business models. For governance to be effective, it has to address the product life-cycle and the societal context determining it. Indicators and assessment tools are proposed that can help fill the current data and knowledge gaps.
Analysis of key trends and drivers in greenhouse gas emissions in the EU between 1990 and 2015 The report analyses the major factors underpinning the trends in greenhouse gas emissions in Europe, both in the last year and over the period since 1990. The data is based on the EU’s 2017 submission to the UNFCCC of its greenhouse gas inventory.
Mapping Europe's environmental future: understanding the impacts of global megatrends at the national level This report sets out the logic for identifying the implications of Global Mega Trends at the national, regional or European level, and aims to provide inspiration to EEA member and cooperating countries to undertake their own national studies. It describes the context and the reasons why understanding global trends is important, and sets out a suggested methodology for doing so.
Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2016 This report is an indicator-based assessment of past and projected climate change and its impacts on ecosystems and society. It also looks at society’s vulnerability to these impacts and at the development of adaptation policies and the underlying knowledge base. This is the fourth ‘Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe’ report, which is published every four years. This edition aims to support the implementation and review process of the 2013 EU Adaptation Strategy, which is foreseen for 2018, and the development of national and transnational adaptation strategies and plans.
Sustainability transitions: Now for the long term This report was developed in cooperation with the European Environment Information and Observation Network (Eionet) — a partnership network of the EEA and its member and cooperating countries involving more than 1 000 experts and 350 national institutions across Europe. Drawing on evidence collected from across the network, the report represents an initial attempt to explore what the concepts of sustainability transitions and transformations mean in practice, and how the EEA and Eionet can help develop the knowledge needed to support systemic change in Europe. Case studies are used to explain and illustrate key concepts and to give a sense of what activities are already under way at local levels. The report concludes with reflections from the EEA's Scientific Committee and Executive Director, which provide further insights into the new knowledge needs and the potential role of the EEA and Eionet in responding to them.
Electric vehicles in Europe This report provides a non-technical summary of the latest information on electric road vehicles in Europe, including those with hybrid technologies. It focuses upon electric passenger vehicles, explaining the different types that are now available on the market, how each type works, and their respective advantages and disadvantages.
Environmental taxation and EU environmental policies This report does three things. It provides an overview of market‑based instruments (MBIs) established by EU environmental legislation. Then it explains the established definitions and rationales for the application of environmental taxes and discusses their current design and application in EEA member countries. It concludes with overall findings and some reflections on the potential for long-term tax-shifting programmes in the context of policy targets as well as technological innovation and demographic changes.
The direct and indirect impacts of EU policies on land The 2011 Roadmap to a resource efficient Europe states, in its milestone of actions to address land as a resource, that 'By 2020, EU policies take into account their direct and indirect impact on land use in the EU and globally. This report presents a methodology for the assessment of European Union (EU) policies in terms of their land-related implications in Europe and provides an initial testing of the methodology across key EU policies and two in-depth case studies, which focus on Cohesion Policy spending on transport in Poland and Spain.
State of Europe's seas The main aim of this report is to assess whether Europe's seas can be considered healthy, clean and undisturbed, and productive. These are three core aspects of the EU's main marine policy instrument — the Marine Strategy Framework Directive — and relate to the condition of marine ecosystems and the human drivers of ecosystem change. This assessment also involves identifying the main sustainability challenges affecting our seas, and how the EU is responding to these challenges. Ultimately, the report argues that EU is not on the path to fulfil its ambition of achieving sustainable use of its seas; although it is fully empowered to do so through the current array of policies and knowledge. This report also discusses how a long-term transition to sustainability could then be secured using the available policies and knowledge.
Assessment of global megatrends The global megatrends report assesses 11 global megatrends (GMT) of importance for Europe's environment in the long term. In assessing key drivers, trends and implications for Europe, it aims to provide an improved basis for strategic European environmental policymaking.
The European environment — state and outlook 2015 — synthesis report The synthesis report informs future European environmental policy in general and its implementation between 2015 and 2020 in particular. It includes a reflection on the European environment in a global context, as well as chapters summarising the state of, trends in, and prospects for the environment in Europe.
Resource‑efficient green economy and EU policies This report highlights the major forces fostering the shift to a resource-efficient green economy in Europe, including the role of EU policies. Currently, the economic and technological changes leading towards green economy objectives across the EU economy are proceeding too slowly; what is required is a much bigger, deeper, and more permanent change in the EU economy and society to create both new opportunities and substitution processes across the economic structure. To bring this about, it is important to study and understand enabling factors and mechanisms at the crossroads of policies and real economy dynamics that could accelerate and direct the transformation.
Why did GHG emissions decrease in the EU between 1990 and 2012? This paper briefly analyses the major factors that accounted for decreased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions excluding land use, land use changes and forestry (LULUCF) in the EU-28 between 1990 and 2012. The paper commences with an overview of EU trends, followed by summaries of the contributions of individual Member States, greenhouse gas types, and main sectors.
Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation The 2013 Late lessons from early warnings report is the second of its type produced by the European Environment Agency (EEA) in collaboration with a broad range of external authors and peer reviewers. The case studies across both volumes of Late lessons from early warnings cover a diverse range of chemical and technological innovations, and highlight a number of systemic problems. The 'Late Lessons Project' illustrates how damaging and costly the misuse or neglect of the precautionary principle can be, using case studies and a synthesis of the lessons to be learned and applied to maximising innovations whilst minimising harms.
End-user GHG emissions from energy: Reallocation of emissions from energy industries to end users 2005…-2010 The objective of this report is to help improve the understanding of past GHG emission trends in the energy sector from the demand or end-user side. To do this, the report develops a methodology to redistributes emissions from energy industries to the final users (by sector) of that energy. This reallocation is done on the basis of Eurostats energy balances and GHG inventories for the energy sector as reported to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), for the period 2005…-2010.
The European environment – state and outlook 2010: Synthesis The SOER 2010 Synthesis provides an overview of the European environment's state, trends and prospects, integrating the main findings of SOER 2010.
Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary principle 1896-2000 Late lessons from early warnings is about the gathering of information on the hazards of human economic activities and its use in taking action to better protect both the environment and the health of the species and ecosystems that are dependent on it, and then living with the consequences. The report is based on case studies. The authors of the case studies, all experts in their particular field of environmental, occupational and consumer hazards, were asked to identify the dates of early warnings, to analyse how this information was used, or not used, in reducing hazards, and to describe the resulting costs, benefits and lessons for the future.

See also

Engaging stakeholders to reflect on the conclusions of SOER 2020 The European environment – state and outlook 2020 (SOER 2020) was accompanied by a process of stakeholder interactions to reflect on the conclusions of the report and their implications for developing responses to sustainability challenges.
References and further reading
Archived
Area 7. Sustainability and foresight Call for Expressions of Interest 2020 for experts to be appointed as members of the European Environment Agency Scientific Committee (EEA/SC/2020/1-7)
Archived
Call for Expressions of Interest - EEA/SC/2020/1-7 Call for Expressions of Interest 2020 for experts to be appointed as members of the European Environment Agency Scientific Committee
Drivers of change: challenges and opportunities for sustainability in Europe The world is becoming increasingly interconnected through flows of information, resources, goods and services, people and ideas, and this implies that changes occurring in one part of the world are likely to have a ripple effect on others. This means that production and consumption systems in Europe are not isolated from one another or the rest of the world. Instead, they are influenced by multiple 'drivers of change'.

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