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The European environment — state and outlook 2020

Publication Created 25 Apr 2019 Published 04 Dec 2019
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Knowledge for transition to a sustainable Europe
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Publication Created 25 Apr 2019 Published 04 Dec 2019
Knowledge for transition to a sustainable Europe

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: 978-92-9480-090-9
: TH-04-19-541-EN-N

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Figures used

Organic agricultural land coverage in Europe, 1985-2015 The figure presents organic agricultural land area in Europe in the period 1985-2017.
Cumulative global fleet of battery electric vehicles (BEV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) in different parts of the world The figure presents the total global stock of electric vehicles in key regions, including both battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).
Evolution of total European energy RD&D spending by technology (USD-million, 2017 prices) (based on IEA estimates) The figure presents European spending on research, development and demonstration for energy technologies, fossil fuels, hydrogen, nuclear, renowables and others.
Demanding environmental policy is associated with greater competitiveness and more eco-innovation in EEA member countries The figure includes all EEA member countries for which data are available on stringency of environmental policy. Countries are positioned according to their ranking in the WEF global competiveness index 2015 (x-axis) and the OECD stringency of environmental policy index (y-axis). The position of countries in the EU eco-innovation ranking are indicated using colours.
Fuel efficiency and fuel consumption in private cars, 1990–2011 This figure presents the fuel efficiency and fuel consumption trends for private cars in the EU-28 in the period 1990 to 2015. The variables included are number of cars, average CO2 emissions of cars, average fuel consumption of cars, GDP, total distance travelled by cars and total energy consumptions of cars.
Energy consumption by transport mode Energy consumption by transport mode
Final energy consumption by sector Final energy consumption by sector
The SDGs framework through a system lens SDGs interactions
Overview of non-binding objectives and binding targets of EU 30 environmental policy 2015-2050 The figure shows non-binding environmental objectives and binding environmental targets for the EU-28 as a whole in the period 2015-2050. Each objective/target is shown for the year of its implementation deadline.
EU GHG emissions in the transport sector, 1990–2017 Comparison of GHG emissions with 1990 levels (1990 = 100 %)
Development of the Gross Nitrogen Balance, Nitrogen use efficiency and GVA in the EU 28 The graph shows the development of the Gross Nitrogen Balance (GNB) (kg nutrient/ ha Utilised Agricultural Area (UAA)) for the EU 28 over the period from 2004 to 2015, together with the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and GVA of the agricultural industry (values at current prices). For displaying all thre parameters and the development of their trends, an index is used setting 2005-values = 1
Estimated number of IED installations covered by BAT conclusions Estimated number of IED installations covered by BAT conclusions
Fraction of REACH chemicals which are persistent and mobile, and found in surface water Note: Logarithmic scale; PM: substances that are Persistent and Mobile.
Total pollutant emissions to water and transfers to UWWTPs by industry for EEA-33 in 2007 to 2017 by pollutant group Total pollutant emissions to water and transfers to UWWTPs by industry from 2007 to 2017 by pollutant group
Key industrial air pollutant and GHG emissions for EEA-33 in 2007 to 2016 by industry sector Key industrial air pollutant and GHG emissions for EEA-33 in 2007 to 2016 by industry sector
Country comparison - Implied emission factors for SO2 emissions from LCPs burning predominantly solid fuel in 2005, 2010 and 2015 Country comparison Implied emission factors for SO2 emissions from LCPs burning predominantly solid fuel in 2005, 2010 and 2015
Air pollutant and GHG emissions as a percentage of total EEA-33 pollutant emissions in 2016, by industry sector Air pollutant and GHG emissions as a percentage of total EEA-33 pollutant emissions in 2016
Change in quiet areas between 2012 and 2017, for selected cities Data submited by countries up to 01/01/2019
Country comparison - Percentage of people exposed to high noise levels by country in 2017 Data submited by countries up to 01/01/2019
Trends in waste generation (excluding major mineral wastes), economic development and population, EEA-33 The figure shows the generation of total waste excluding major mineral waste compared to the developments in GDP and population.
Resource productivity in Europe, 2000, 2008 and 2017 Comparison of resource productivity, country by country, ordered from highest to lowest in 2017
Trend in materials use by type of material, EU-28, 2000-2018 Use of materials in EU28, 2000-2017, by four categories of materials
EU urban population exposed to air pollutant concentrations above selected EU air quality standards and WHO AQ guidelines The rationale for selection of pollutants and corresponding WHO guidelines is given in the specification section of indicator CSI 004.
Country comparison of the PM2.5 concentrations in 2017 The graph is based on annual mean concentration PM2.5 values. For each country, together with the number of stations considered, the lowest, highest and median values (in µg/m3) recorded at its stations are given. The rectangles mark the 25th and 75th percentiles. At 25 % of the stations, levels are below the lower percentile; at 25 % of the stations, concentrations are above the upper percentile. The limit value set by EU legislation is marked by the upper horizontal line. The WHO AQG is marked by the lower horizontal line.
Value added and employment in EU-28: total economy vs EGSS Trend in employment and gross value added
Emission reductions in 2030 relative to 2005 for the REF and CEP scenarios (EU-28) Emission reduction for main air pollutants in 2030 relative to 2005
EU progress in meeting 2010 emission ceilings set out in the NEC Directive and the 2020/2030 reduction commitments National Emission Ceilings Directive: Progress in meeting the 2010 emission ceilingsand the 2020 as well as 2030 reduction commitments.
EU-28 emissions, 2000-2016 (% of 2000 levels) Evolution of main air pollutant emissions and of the gross domestic product (GDP) in the EU-28; Values for 2000-2017 are expressed as percentage of 2000 levels. GDP is expressed in chain linked volumes (2010), as percentage of the 2000 level. Methane (CH4) emissions are total emissions (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control sectors 1-7) excluding sector 5: Land-use, land-use change and forestry. The present emission inventories include only anthropogenic non-methane volatile organic compound (NMVOC) emissions.
Primary and final energy consumption in the EU, 2005-2016, 2020 and 2030 targets and 2050 indicative levels of the EU Energy Roadmap The solid line shows the development of primary energy consumption and final energy consumption. The dashed lines show the linear trajectories until 2030 and to the 2050 scenario results from the Commission's 2050 long term strategy.
Projected welfare impacts of climate change for different EU regions and sectors for two emissions scenarios This figure 23 the welfare losses (as percentage of GDP) for the six sectoral impacts in the five European regions and the EU-28 in both the high warming and the 2° C scenarios. The EU welfare loss under the high warming scenario is estimated to be around 1.9% of GDP (€240 bn) and could be reduced by approximately 2/3 in the 2° C scenario (€79 bn).
Share of EU energy consumption from renewable sources, 2005–2050 The solid line shows the development of the share of renewables in EU energy consumption based on historic data. The dashed lines show expected progress to 2020 based on projection data. The dots illustrate the 2020, 2030 targets.The 2050 scenario range illustrates the an average of eight scenarios published in the Commission's 2050 long term strategy.
EU part of the regional sea surface area (km2) and the area covered by MPAs in 2016 (dark colour and in %) EU part of the regional sea surface area (km2) and the area covered by MPAs in 2016 (dark colour and in %)
Economic damage caused by climate-related extreme events Economic damage caused by weather and climate-related extreme events
Timelines for achieving good environmental staus as reported by members states Timelines for achieving good environmental staus as reported by members states
Global average near surface temperature since the pre-industrial period Global average near surface temperature since the pre-industrial period
Drivers of GHG emission reductions in the EU-28, 1990-2017 Drivers of GHG emission reductions from 1990 to 2017.
GHG emissions by main sector in the EU-28, 1990-2017 GHG emissions by main sector from 1990 to 2016.
GHG emissions trends and projections in the EU-28, 1990-2035 Historic trends from 1990 to 2017 are represented in solid lines. Projections until 2035 are represented in dashed lines. The upper line represents the scenario "with existing measures", while the lower line represents the scenario "with additional measures". EU targets and objectives for 2020, 2030 and 2050 are represented as bullets.
Trend in the status of stocks assessment and the progress made in GES assessment in the North East Atlantic and Baltic Sea since 1945 This figure shows trends in the status of assessed fish stocks between 1947 and 2017, expressed in two metrics: fishing mortality (F) and reproductive capacity (i.e. spawning stock biomass (SSB)). It reflects their average deviation relative to policy thresholds for Good Environmental Status (GES) (i.e. Fmsy and MSY B trigger respectively)*. For fishing mortality, 1 is a target (Fmsy), above which exploitation is unsustainable, while for reproductive capacity, 1 is a precautionary limit (MSY B trigger), below which there is a high risk that it is impaired.
Sea surface temperature Time series of annual average sea surface temperature (°C), referenced to the average temperature between 1993 and 2012, in the global ocean and in each of the European seas.
Number of people exposed to Lden ≥ 55 dB and estimated percentage change between 2017-2030 Outlooks for 2020 and 2030
Number of people exposed to Lnight ≥ 50 dB in Europe, based on areas covered by strategic noise maps Data submited by countries up to 01/01/2019
Number of people exposed to Lden ≥ 55 dB in Europe, based on areas covered by strategic noise maps Data submited by countries up to 01/01/2019
Country comparison - Reductions in PCB emissions per capita in EEA-33 countries Different scales between the two figures. No data available for Liechtenstein and Switzerland. Emissions reported by Czechia, Cyprus, Malta and the Netherlands are close to zero, and Turkey reported zero PCB emissions.
Progress towards selected waste management targets The figure shows the landfilling rate for municipal waste by country. Each dot represents a country. The boxes represent the upper and lower quartiles, and the line in the box shows the median.
Circular material use rate
Country comparison - Recycling rates of municipal waste, 2004 and 2017 Recycling rates of municipal waste in 2004 and 2017
Trends in number of non-indigenous species in Europe’ seas Cumulative number of new non-indigenous species (NIS) aggregated per 6 years in all European Seas, 1949-2017, per functional group (Invertebrates, vertebrates and primary producers, (EU + non EU)
Mean annual productivity of the White-tailed eagle in the Baltic Proper, Swedish coastal area Mean annual productivity of the White-tailed eagle in the Baltic Proper, Swedish coastal area
Change in six major land cover types in the EEA-39 during the period 2000-2018 The chart shows the periodical change of land cover classes, expressed in km2 and calculated as a yearly value.
Country comparison: land take and land recultivation in EEA39 in the period 2012-2018 (in proportion of country area). The chart shows the area of land take and recultivation for the last Corine Land Cover observation period 2012-2018 for each EEA39 country. Both land take and recultivation are expressed in m2/km2 of the country area for the sake of comparability.
Trends in conservation status of habitats assessed as unfavourable at EU level The number of assessements is indicated in parentheses. The total number of assessments is 804.
Concentrations of BOD5, orthophosphate, and nitrates in rivers, and nitrates in groundwater. Concentrations of BOD5, orthophosphate, and nitrates in rivers, and nitrates in groundwater.
Common Birds in Europe, population index Common bird index shows the population trends of farmland, forest and all common bird species
Long-term trends in eutrophication in the Baltic Sea The chart shows the annual classified Eutrophication status in each of 9 basins of the Baltic Sea over the period from 1901 to 2012. The status is assigned one of five classes "High", "Good", "Moderate", "Poor" or "Bad", depending on the Eutrophcation Ratio calculated by the HEAT tool. See more details in Andersen et al. (2015) Biol. Rev. 1 doi: 10.1111/brv.12221
The EU’s consumption-based performance for selected planetary boundaries The study takes a conservative approach, as it calculates the European share based on the lower end values of the global zone of uncertainty de ned by Ste en et al. (2015). For example, the global zone of uncertainty for Freshwater is de ned as 4000-6000 km3 in Ste en et al. (2015). This study uses 4000 km3 as the basis for calculating the European share. In some cases (indicated in brackets) slightly di erent control variables have been used than in Ste en et al. (2015).The yellow zone of uncertainty represents the average range across six principles to allocate a European share of the global safe operating space (equality, needs, rights to development, sovereignity, capability).More information in the forthcoming EEA report
Correlation between Ecological Footprint and Human Development Index Correlation between Ecological Footprint and Human Development Index (HDI). HDI values above 0.8 are defined as "Living well", Ecological footprint values below 1.7 are defined as "Living within environmental limits".The value of 1.7 refers to the average biocapacity per person globally in 2014 (see also http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/exploreData. The HDI value of 0.8 refers to 'very high human development', according to UNDP (see http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/energising-human-development)
Trends in global domestic extraction of materials, 1970 – 2017 The graph distinguishes 4 material groups (in tonnes): biomass, non-metallic minerales, fossil fuels, metal ores
Trends in total population by world region, 1950–2100 final demand: footprint of total final demand, including both in use impact or resource use and production impact or resource use water consumption footprint blue and green water consumption energy use footprint: energy carrier use land use footprint: arable land and permanent pasture material use footprint: use of primary raw materials
Trends in conservation status of non-bird species assessed as unfavourable at EU level These are species from the Habitats Directive. The number of assessments is indicated in parenthesis. The total number of assessments is 2 665.
Complementarity between European designations (Natura 2000 and Emerald networks) and national designations by share of terrestrial area The overlap for Switzerland relates to Emerald Network sites rather than Natura 2000 sites. CDDA = Common Database of Designated Areas; N2000 = Natura 2000.
Area of Natura 2000 sites designated under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives in 2017 Trend of sites designated under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives
European grassland butterfly indicator The indicator the population trends of European grassland butterflies
Trends in total population by world region, 1950–2100 Total population (both sexes) in millions. The period 1950-2015 is based on UN estimates, while the period 2020 to 2100 is based on the UN medium variant projection.
Indicators for global socio-economic development and the structure and functioning of the Earth system Full supplementary data available from www.igbp.net or by contacting the authors
Accumulation rates of Cadmium (left) and Copper (right), 2010 Map of accumulation rates of Cadmium (left) and Copper (right) for the year 2010 in agricultural top soils (upper 20 cm). Data on: (i) manure application, affecting metal inputs, is based on livestock statistics from EUROSTAT, (ii) fertilizer inputs and crop yields , affecting metal uptake, are based on FAOstat, and (iii) soil metal concentrations, affecting metal leaching, are based on GEMAS (Reimann et al. 2014a,b)
Percentage of water bodies, not in good chemical status, with uPBT, per river basic district. Surface water bodies failing to achieve good chemical status, by RBDs with uPBTs.
Spatial pattern of net land take in EEA-39 in the period 2000-2018 Net land take as a result of urban sprawl is measured from the Copernicus Corine Land Cover dataset between 2000-2018. The map shows for each grid cell the area in km² which was covered with sealed surfaces. For visualisation land take data is presented in a 10km grid.
Trend in absolute sea level across Europe based on satellite measurements Spatial distribution of trends in mean sea level in European seas (January 1993- December 2017)
Nitrogen surplus and exceedances of critical nitrogen inputs to agricultural land in view of adverse impacts on water quality The map shows the calculated nitrogen surplus (inputs minus crop removal) and exceedance of critical nitrogen inputs to agricultural land in view of adverse impacts on water
Projected change in meteorological drought frequency between the present (1981-2010) and the mid-century 21st century (2041-2070) in Europe, under two emissions scenarios Left map: Scenario RCP4.5; right map: Scenario RCP8.5. The lines represent the areas in which at least two-third of the simulations used agree on the sign of the change.
Years of life lost (YLL) per 100 000 inhabitants attributable to exposure to PM2.5 in European countries (2016) The map shows the number of years of life lost per 100 000 inhabitants attributable to exposure to PM2.5. Countries are ranked in quintiles.
Fragmentation increase in Europe during 2009-2015 The map shows the difference of the years 2015 and 2009 and presents the increase in fragmentation in that period. The original 100m values were resampled to a 5 km grid for visualisation purposes.
Copper concentration in European Union soils Map of Copper concentrations in European Union agricultural top soils (upper 20 cm).
Arable land and permanent crops gains and losses between 2000 and 2018 This map shows the loss and gain of arable land and permanent crops. Changes are monitored at 1 ha level whereas the map is aggregated in a 10 km2 grid.
Percentage of water bodies, not in good ecological status or potential, per river basic district The map present the proportion of surface water bodies (rivers, lakes, transitional and coastal waters) in less than good ecological status per River Basin District.
Percentage of water bodies, not in good chemical status, without uPBT, per river basic district. Surface water bodies failing to achieve good chemical status, by RBDs without uPBTs.
Projected change in annual and summer precipitation Projected changes in annual (left) and summer (right) precipitation (%) in the period 2071-2100 compared to the baseline period 1971-2000 for the forcing scenario RCP 8.5. Model simulations are based on the multi-model ensemble average of RCM simulations from the EURO-CORDEX initiative.
Overview of National Adaptation Strategies and Plans Countries that have dopted a National Adaptation Strategy (NAS) or a NAS and a National Adaptation Plan (NAP).
Annual mean NO2 concentrations in 2017 Observed concentrations of NO2 in 2017. The map shows the NO2 annual mean concentrations. The dots in the last two colour categories indicate stations with exceedances of the annual limit value (40 µg/m3). Only stations with more than 75 % of valid data have been included in the map.
Status of the assessed European commercial fish and shellfish stocks in relation to Good Environmental Status (GES) per EU marine region in 2015-2017 This figure shows the status of the assessed European commercially exploited fish and shellfish stocks in relation to ‘good environmental status’ (GES) per EU marine region in 2017 (although for the Mediterranean and Black Seas, data refer to 2016). Stocks for which adequate information is available to determine GES for fishing mortality (F) and/or reproductive capacity (spawning stock biomass (SSB)) are included (where Z is the total number of stocks, Y is the total number of assessed stocks and X is the number of stocks for which adequate information is available to determine GES on the basis of these two criteria). A distinction is made between stocks that are (1) in good status based on both F and SSB; (2) in good status based on only one criteria, F or SSB (either because one of the two criteria are not in good status or there is only one available criteria and it is in good status); and (3) not in good status (based on both F and SSB or there is only one criteria available and it is not in good status). As assessments are carried out in a multiannual cycle within the Mediterranean Sea, the number of stocks included for this region depends on the period covered. See the Methodology section for further information on how good status is determined.
Number of extreme heat waves in future climates under two different climate forcing scenarios The top maps show the median of the number of heat waves in a multi-model ensemble of the near future (2020–2052) and the latter half of the century (2068–2100) under the RCP4.5 scenario, and the lower maps are for the same time periods but under RCP8.5
Chemical risk estimates for European water bodies The map displays the fraction of sites where the maximum chemical concentration exceeds the acute risk threshold (left) and the mean chemical concentration exceeds the chronic risk threshold (right) for any organism group. The color code in the map shows the level of chemical risk, from low chemical risk (green) to high chemical risk (red).
Draft
Air pollution mitigation measure in place and planned in the pilot cities Air pollution mitigation measure in place and planned in the pilot cities

Interactive maps

News and articles

Climate change adaptation is key to avoid disruption of EU agricultural commodities imports Stepping up European Union (EU) support for international adaptation, together with trade diversification are key actions the EU can take to lessen the impacts of climate change on agricultural trade, according to a European Environment Agency (EEA) briefing published today.
The challenge of reducing industrial pollution Industrial pollution in Europe is decreasing, thanks to a blend of regulation, developments in manufacturing and environmental initiatives. However, industry continues to pollute and moving towards zero pollution in this sector is an ambitious challenge.
Living healthily in a chemical world We can categorise pollution by where we find it — in soil, water or air — or we can look at different pollution types, such as chemicals. Synthetic chemicals are all around us. Some of them, however, can also be very harmful to our health and the environment. How can we limit the negative effects of chemicals that have become a part of our current way of life?
Land and soil pollution — widespread, harmful and growing What do many vineyards scattered across idyllic landscapes, industrial sites and landfills have in common? The presence of chemicals might be the answer. From heavy metals to organic pollutants and microplastics, the soil in which we grow our food and the land on which we build our homes might be contaminated with different pollutants. Contaminants are widespread and are accumulating in Europe’s land and soils. How can we tackle this problem?
Towards zero pollution in Europe Last spring, a coronavirus reshaped the world in a matter of weeks. Many of the things that we had taken for granted were suddenly not available to us anymore. The pandemic caught the world by surprise, but, if you had asked a scientist working in a field related to infectious diseases, this was only a matter of time.
SOER 2020 - At a glance The European environment — state and outlook 2020 (SOER 2020) comes at a crucial time of urgent sustainability challenges that require urgent systemic solutions. The overarching challenge of this century is how we achieve development across the world that balances societal, economic and environmental considerations. Sustainability needs to become the guiding principle for ambitious and coherent policies and actions across society.
Europe’s state of the environment 2020: change of direction urgently needed to face climate change challenges, reverse degradation and ensure future prosperity Europe will not achieve its 2030 goals without urgent action during the next 10 years to address the alarming rate of biodiversity loss, increasing impacts of climate change and the overconsumption of natural resources. The European Environment Agency’s (EEA) latest ‘State of the Environment’ report published today states that Europe faces environmental challenges of unprecedented scale and urgency. The report says, however, there is reason for hope, amid increased public awareness of the need to shift to a sustainable future, technological innovations, growing community initiatives and stepped up EU action like the European Green Deal.

Related briefings

Global climate change impacts and the supply of agricultural commodities to Europe The EEA has addressed the consequences of climate change in numerous reports, including Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2016, the 2019 report Climate change adaptation in the agriculture sector in Europe and the European environment — state and outlook 2020 report. This briefing analyses the implications for Europe of the impact of global climate change on agricultural trade.
The European environment — state and outlook 2020: knowledge for transition to a sustainable Europe Europe will not achieve its 2030 goals without urgent action during the next 10 years to address the alarming rate of biodiversity loss, increasing impacts of climate change and the overconsumption of natural resources. The European Environment Agency’s (EEA) latest ‘State of the Environment’ report states that Europe faces environmental challenges of unprecedented scale and urgency.
The European environment — state and outlook 2020: knowledge for transition to a sustainable Europe Europe will not achieve its 2030 goals without urgent action during the next 10 years to address the alarming rate of biodiversity loss, increasing impacts of climate change and the overconsumption of natural resources. The European Environment Agency’s (EEA) latest ‘State of the Environment’ report states that Europe faces environmental challenges of unprecedented scale and urgency.

Related indicators

Archived
Final energy consumption by sector and fuel in Europe Final energy consumption in the 28 EU Member States was 5.7 % lower in 2017 than in 2005, mainly due to reductions in the industry sector. Preliminary data suggests that this trend continues in 2018. Still, final energy consumption increased for all fuel types in the EU between 2016 and 2017. In 2017, the EU's final energy consumption rose for the first time in 7 years above the indicative trajectory set by the EEA to monitor progress towards the 2020 energy efficiency targets. A trend which is expected to continue also in 2018. Therefore, achieving the 2020 targets is increasingly uncertain.
Emissions of air pollutants from large combustion plants in Europe Large combustion plants are responsible for a significant proportion of anthropogenic pollutant emissions. Since 2004, emissions from large combustion plants in the 28 EU Member States have decreased, by 86 % for sulphur dioxide, 59 % for nitrogen oxides and 84 % for dust. In 2017, from a total of 3 664 large combustion plants, 50 % of all emissions came from just 68, 141 and 58 plants for  sulphur dioxide , nitrogen oxides and dust, respectively. However, the performances of these largest plants have improved greatly over time. One indicator of the environmental performance of large combustion plants is the ratio between emissions and fuel consumption (i.e. the implied emission factor). The implied emission factors for all three pollutants decreased significantly between 2004 and 2017 for all sizes of large combustion plants.  
Use of freshwater resources in Europe Overall, water abstraction and economic growth in the EU showed absolute decoupling over the period 2000–2017. Total water abstraction declined by 17 %, while total gross value added generated from all economic sectors increased by 59 %. However, water scarcity conditions and drought events continue to cause significant risks in southern Europe, as well as in specific areas of other European regions. Agriculture remained the sector exerting the highest pressure on renewable freshwater resources overall, being responsible for 59 % of total water use in Europe in 2017. This is mainly because of agriculture levels in southern Europe. In 2017, 64 % of total water abstraction was from rivers and 24 % from groundwater. Annual renewable freshwater resources per inhabitant showed a decreasing trend across all regions except eastern Europe over the period 1990-2017. Large decreases were observed in Spain (-65 %), Malta (-54 %) and Cyprus (-32 %). Climate change and population increase exerted high pressures on renewable freshwater resources in Europe over this period. The increasing frequency and magnitude of extreme droughts and floods enhance the risk of there being reduced volumes of renewable freshwater resources in the future.
Public awareness of biodiversity in Europe Recognition and understanding of the term 'biodiversity' has increased in the European Union. 71 % of interviewed EU citizens have heard of biodiversity and over 41 % of these know what it means. At least eight out of ten Europeans consider the various effects of biodiversity loss to be serious for humans and for nature and agree that it is important to halt its loss. The biggest perceived threats to biodiversity are pollution of air, soil and water, man-made disasters and climate change. Just under a third of respondents are aware of the Natura 2000 network, including 19 % who say they have heard about it but do not know what it is. However, the overwhelming majority agree that nature protection areas are very important in protecting endangered animals and plants or safeguarding nature's role in providing food, clean air and water. Most Europeans are not willing to trade damage or destruction of protected areas for economic development.
Archived
Use of renewable fuels in transport in Europe Renewable energy is growing as a share of the total amount of energy used by the transport sector, but this share remains small.  Across the EU-28, the average share of renewable energy used in transport (RES-T) was 7.4 % in 2017. EEA data indicate that the share of renewable energy supply in the transport sector (RES-T) further increased to 8.1 % in 2018.  Initially, the EU supported biofuels as a way to help mitigate climate change, but time and research have shown that making fuels out of crops has led to deforestation and increased stress on land resources, as well as potentially inflating food prices. As such, a 7 % cap on the amount of biofuels made from crops has been proposed.  Next generation biofuels made from waste or algae may not cause the problems highlighted above, but major investments will be required to achieve large-scale production.
Archived
Exceedances of air quality limit values due to traffic The annual EU limit value for nitrogen dioxide — one of the main air quality pollutants of concern, which is typically associated with vehicle emissions — was widely exceeded across Europe in 2017. Some  86 % o f these exceedances were detected at roadside monitoring locations.  The EU limit values for the two categories of particulate matter (PM 10  and PM 2.5 ) were also widely exceeded in 2017. For PM 2.5 , the percentage of exceedances recorded at traffic stations was very similar to that recorded at background stations. For PM 10 , a higher percentage of exceedances was recorded at background stations than at traffic stations. This indicates the importance of other emission sources for these pollutants, such as commercial and institutional buildings, household heating, etc.
Landscape fragmentation pressure and trends in Europe In 2015, on average, there were around 1.5 fragmented landscape elements per km 2 in the European Union  [1] , a 3.7 % increase compared with 2009. Approximately 1.13 million km 2 , around 28 % of the area of the EU  [1] , was strongly fragmented i n 2015 , a 0.7 % increase compared with 2009. There was less of an increase in fragmented landscape elements and in the area of strongly fragmented landscape between 2012 and 2015 than between 2009 and 2012 (1.4 and 0.18 percentage points, respectively). Arable lands and permanent croplands (around 42 .6 %) and pastures and farmland mosaics (around 40.2 %) were most affected by strong fragmentation pressure in 2015 in the EU. Between 2009 and 2015, however, the largest increase in the area of strongly fragmented landscape was in grasslands/pastures and in farmland mosaics.   Luxembourg (91 %), Belgium (83 %) and Malta (70 %) had the largest proportions of strongly fragmented landscape in 2015 (as a proportion of their country area). The Baltic countries and Finland and Sweden were on average the least fragmented countries in the EU. Between 2009 and 2015, the area of strongly fragmented landscape increased most in Croatia, as well as in Greece, Hungary and Poland. [1]  Romania is excluded because of the poor coverage of fragmentation geometry data in 2009.  
Land take in Europe Despite a reduction in the last decade (land take was over 1000km2/year between 2000-2006), land take in EU28 still amounted to 539km2/year between 2012-2018. The net land take concept combines land take with land return to non-artificial land categories (re-cultivation). While some land was re-cultivated in the EU-28 in the period  2000-2018, 11 times more land was taken. Between 2000 and 2018, 78 % of land take in the EU-28 affected agricultural areas, i.e. arable lands and pastures, and mosaic farmlands. From 2000 to 2018, land take consumed 0.6 % of all arable lands and permanent crops, 0.5 % of all pastures and mosaic farmlands, and 0.3 % of all grasslands into urban areas. In proportion to their area, Cyprus, the Netherlands and Albania saw the largest amount of land take between 2000 and 2018. The  re-cultivation of land increased from 2012 to 2018, led by Luxembourg, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and Belgium.   The main drivers of land take during 2000-2018 were industrial and commercial land use as well as extension of residential areas and construction sites.  
Trends in marine non-indigenous species Available data show that  around 1 223 non-indigenous species (NIS) are present in the Europe’s seas, of which almost 81% (1 039) were recorded in the period 1949-2017. The species in question consist mostly of invertebrates (approx. 63 %). The number of NIS is highest in the Mediterranean Sea, where almost 69 % (838) of all NIS have been recorded. A total of 21% (256) were recorded in the North-East Atlantic Ocean, 5 % (66) in the Baltic Sea and 3 % (32) in the Black Sea. Mean numbers of new NIS recorded in the period of 2006-2011 (calculated for 6 yearly periods)  were 28 species per year. The rate of new NIS recording slowed down to 16 species per year during the 2012-2017 period. More than 80 of NIS species were identified as 'invasive alien species' (IAS)  with a high potential to negative impact biodiversity and cause economic and social consequences.
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Nutrients in freshwater in Europe Nutrient conditions in European surface waters have improved over recent decades. However, there has been no overall decrease in the nitrate concentration in groundwater, which has been more or less stable since 1997, although it has decreased since 2014 and is currently closer to the 1992 level. On average, the nitrate concentration in European rivers decreased by 0.02 milligrams per litre of nitrogen (mg N/l) per year (0.8 % per year) between 1992 and 2017, but the concentration has levelled off since around 2010. This decrease is likely related to effects of measures to reduce agricultural inputs of nitrate and improvements in waste water treatment. However, the apparent stabilisation of river nitrate concentrations in recent years may call for further measures to be taken. The average phosphate concentration in European rivers has decreased markedly over the last two-three decades (by 0.002 milligrams per litre of phosphorous (mg P/l) per year (1.6 % per year). The average total phosphorus concentration in lakes also decreased over the period 1992-2017 (0.0004 mg P/l per year (0.9 %)). The decrease in phosphorus concentration is likely related to improvements in waste water treatment and the reduction of phosphorus in detergents.
Hazardous substances in marine organisms Concentrations of eight hazardous substances in European seas were generally 'low' or 'moderate' in line with the results of the previous assessment (2015). In some cases, however, the way we have traditionally defined 'moderate' levels meant that EU environmental quality standards (EQS) were exceeded. Any concentrations of hazardous substances exceeding EQS are unacceptable for marine organisms. In general, concentrations in European Seas were 'moderate' for cadmium, mercury, lead, hexachlorobenzene, DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), polychlorinated biphenyls and benzo[a]pyrene. Both 'moderate' and 'high' concentrations of mercury exceeded the EQS and were found in a significant proportion of all seas.  'High' concentrations for hexachlorobenzene and benzo[a]pyrene, exceeding the EQS particularly in the case of the latter, were also found across all seas. Concentrations of lindane (gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane) were 'high' in the Mediterranean sea and generally low elsewhere. Polychlorinated biphenyl levels appear to be decreasing in the North-East Atlantic Ocean. This suggests that policy measures and initiatives to decrease inputs of these substances in the region have had some success. For the remaining seven hazardous substances, it appears that the impact of abatement policies in this region might have stabilised. Abatement policies for all eight hazardous substances have been in effect for the Baltic Sea, but no downward trends could be identified in the current assessment, indicating that the impact of such policies might have stabilised. Because of insufficient data coverage, a comprehensive assessment all eight hazardous substances for the Mediterranean Sea could not be conducted.  Available data for this region indicates that policies to reduce pollution have had an impact 'though. The Black Sea is not included in this assessment due to lack of data.
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Exposure of Europe's ecosystems to acidification, eutrophication and ozone Exposure of ecosystems to acidification in the EU-28 (critical loads from 43 % in 1980 to 7 % in 2010) and EEA member countries (to 7 %) has been decreasing since 1980s, although in some areas reduction targets, as defined as interim objective in the EU's National Emission Ceilings Directive, have not been met. Exposure to acidification can lead to disturbances in the structure and function of ecosystems. As a result, full ecosystem recovery may take longer time after reaching the targets. Exposure of ecosystems to eutrophication in the EU-28 (critical loads from 84 % in 1990 to 63 % in 2010) and EEA member countries (to 55 %) has been decreasing since 1990. The area in exceedance is projected to further decrease to 58 % in 2020 for the EU-28 (48 % in the EEA member countries), assuming current legislation is implemented. The magnitude of the exceedances is also projected to decline considerably in most areas, except for a few 'hot spot' areas in western France and the border areas between Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands, as well as in northern Italy. Looking ahead, only 4 % of the EU-28 ecosystem area (3 % in EEA member countries) is projected to exceed acidification critical loads in 2020 if current legislation is fully implemented. The eutrophication reduction target set in the updated EU air pollution strategy proposed by the European Commission in late 2013, will be met by 2030 if it is assumed that all maximum technically feasible reduction measures are implemented, but it will not be met by current legislation. For ozone, most of Europe's vegetation and agricultural crops are exposed to ozone levels that exceed the long term objective specified in the EU's Air Quality Directive. A significant fraction is also exposed to levels above the target value threshold defined in the directive. The effect-related concentrations show large year-to-year variations. Over the period 1996-2017, the concentrations observed at rural background stations increased until 2006, after which they decreased. After a 6-year period (2009-2014) of relatively low values, the fraction of agricultural crops exposed to levels above the target value increased again to 30 % in 2015. However, at the low end of the exposure spectrum there was an increase in the area with levels below the long-term objective from 15 % (2014) to 24 % (2017). During the past 5 years, around 50-65 % of the forest area was exposed to ozone concentrations above the critical level set by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) for the protection of forests. 
Status of marine fish and shellfish stocks in European seas Although further improvements are still necessary, the analysis of long time series shows clear and important signs of improvement in the North-East Atlantic Ocean and Baltic Sea ( 62.5 - 87.5 % of stocks meet at least one of the good environmental status criteria in these regions). Since the early 2000s, better management of fish and shellfish stocks has contributed to a clear decrease in fishing pressure in these two regional seas, with average fishing mortality dropping below the maximum rate of fishing mortality in 2017. This has led to signs of recovery in the reproductive capacity of several fish and shellfish stocks. If these efforts continue, fishing mortality in the region should remain on average near the maximum rate of fishing mortality and reproductive capacity should continue to improve, accomplishing the 2020 objective for healthy fish and shellfish stocks in the North-East Atlantic Ocean and Baltic Sea. In contrast, the situation remains critical in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Only 2 out of 33 stocks (6 %) in the Mediterranean Sea and 1 out of 7 stocks (14.3 %) in the Black Sea meet at least one of the good environmental status criteria. This is mainly due to the prevalence of overfishing and a significant lack of knowledge of the status of fish and shellfish stocks. Given this scenario, i t is unlikely that the 2020 policy objective will be met in the Mediterranean or Black Sea. Overall, the 2020 objective of having healthy fish and shellfish populations is unlikely to be met in Europe’s seas without further collective action.
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Production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances A significant reduction in the consumption of ozone-depleting substances has been achieved by the 28 EU Member States plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland and Turkey (EEA-33) since 1986. This reduction has been largely driven by the 1987 United Nations Environment Programme Montreal Protocol. Upon the entry into force of the Montreal Protocol, EEA-33 consumption was approximately 420 000 ozone-depleting potential tonnes. Consumption values of around zero were reached in 2002 and have remained at this level ever since. S ince the early 1990s, th e EU has taken additional measures, in the shape of  EU law,  to reduce the consumption of ozone-depleting substances. In many aspects, the current EU regulation on substances that deplete the ozone layer (1005/2009/EC) goes further than the Montreal Protocol and has also brought forward the phasing out of hydrochlorofluorocarbons  in the EU.
Emissions of the main air pollutants in Europe In EEA countries, ammonia emissions have decreased by 18 % (23 % in the EU-28) overall since 1990, but have been continuously increasing since 2014. Since 1990, emissions of both nitrogen oxides and non-methane volatile organic compounds decreased by more than a half, with emission of nitrogen oxides decreasing by 57 % and non-methane volatile organic compounds by 54% in EEA countries (61 % and 58 % in the EU-28). Emissions of fine particulate matter decreased by almost one third (28 %) in both EEA countries and in the EU-28 from 2000. Since 1990, level of emissions of sulphur oxides strongly decreased by 82 % in EEA countries (91 % in the EU-28).
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Abundance and distribution of selected European species Monitoring schemes show significant long-term (25-year) downward trends in common birds (in particular farmland birds) and grassland butterfly population numbers, with no signs of recovery. Between 1990 and 2016, there was a 9 % decrease in the index of common birds in the 26 EU Member States with bird population monitoring schemes. This decrease is slightly greater (11 %) if figures for Norway and Switzerland are included. The common forest bird index decreased by 3 % (EU) and by 5 % (EU plus Norway and Switzerland) over the same period. The decline in common farmland bird numbers over the same period was much more pronounced, at 32 % (EU) and 35 % (EU plus Norway and Switzerland).  The index of grassland butterflies has declined significantly in the 15 EU countries where butterfly monitoring schemes exist. In 2017, the index was 39 % below its 1990 value.  
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Ecological footprint of European countries The total ecological footprint of the EU-28 countries increased rapidly during the 1960s and 1970s, and has remained relatively constant since the 1980s. However, total biocapacity — the capacity of ecosystems to produce useful biological materials and absorb waste materials generated by humans, using current management schemes and extraction technologies — has changed very little since 1961. The picture is similar for the EEA-39 countries and the wider pan-European region. The constantly increasing  ecological footprint has resulted in an ever larger biocapacity deficit which may have negative consequences for the environment both within and outside Europe.  
Exceedance of air quality standards in urban areas Air quality in Europe has improved over the last decades as a direct result of targeted policies and technological improvements. However, between 2015 and 2017, a significant proportion of the urban population in the EU-28 was still exposed to concentrations of certain air pollutants that were above EU limit or target values. The numbers of people exposed were even higher in relation to the more stringent World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guideline values set for the protection of human health. For fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ), 6-8 % of the urban population were exposed to concentrations in excess of the EU limit value, while 74-81 % were exposed to concentrations above the WHO guideline value. For particulate matter (PM 10 ), the respective exposure estimates were 13-19 % for the EU limit value and 42-52 % for the WHO guideline value. For ozone (O 3 ), estimates were 12-29 % for the EU target value and 95-98 % for the WHO guideline value. For nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), estimates were 7-8 % in both cases (EU limit value and WHO guideline value).
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Progress on energy efficiency in Europe Over the period 1990-2016, the energy efficiency of end-use sectors improved by 30 % in the EU-28 countries at an annual average rate of 1.4 %/year. These improvements were driven by improvements in the industry sector (1.8 %/year) and the households sector (1.6 %/year). However, half of the efficiency gains achieved through technological innovation in the household sector were offset by the increasing number of electrical appliances and by larger homes. The rates of improvement were lower in the transport sector (0.9 %/year) and services sector (1.1 %/year).
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Agriculture: nitrogen balance At the EU level, there has been a decrease in the agricultural nitrogen balance between 2000 and 2015, which is an indication of an improving trend. The main decrease was between 2000 and 2010; between 2010 and 2015 there was no further significant decrease. A country comparison of the average agricultural nitrogen balance for the years 2000-2003 and 2012-2015, shows that for the majority of European countries there was a reduction in the nitrogen balance, reflecting an improving trend. Although the agricultural nitrogen balance is decreasing in most Member States, it is still considered to be unacceptably high in some parts of Europe because of associated impacts on the environment. This is particularly true in western Europe and in some Mediterranean countries. Even in countries with low national averages, there can be regions with high nitrogen loadings because of agricultural intensity, such as livestock density. Further efforts are therefore needed to reduce the balance.
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Overview of electricity production and use in Europe In 2016,  low-carbon energy sources (i.e. renewables and nuclear energy) continued to dominate the electricity mix for the second year in a row, together generating more power than fossil fuel sources. Fossil fuels (i.e. coal, natural gas and oil) were responsible for 43 % of all gross electricity generation in 2016, a decrease of 11 percentage points across the EU compared with 2005 (54 %). By way of contrast, the share of electricity generated from renewable sources has grown rapidly since 2005, but the pace of growth has slowed down after 2014. In 2016, renewable electricity reached almost one third (29 %) of all gross electricity generation in the EU. This is twice as much as in 2005. As such, renewable sources generated more electricity in 2016 than nuclear sources or coal and lignite. Nuclear energy sources contributed roughly one quarter (26 %) of all gross electricity generation in 2016. The transition from fossil fuels to renewable fuels, together with improved transformation efficiencies in electricity generation, led to an average annual 2.6 % decrease in CO 2 emissions per kWh between 2005 and 2016. Final electricity consumption (the total consumption of electricity by all end-use sectors plus electricity imports and minus exports) in the EU increased by one percent in 2016 compared with 2015, reaching the same level as in 2005. The sharpest growth was observed in the services sector (1.2 % per year) and the sharpest decline in industry (-1.0 % per year). With regards to the non-EU EEA countries,  between 2005 and 2016, electricity generation increased by an average of 4.9 % per  year in Turkey, 7.1 % per year  in Iceland and 0.7 % per year in Norway.
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Passenger and freight transport demand in Europe Passenger transport demand in the EU-28 increased by 2.5 % between 2015 and 2016, the second largest annual growth rate since 1999.  Car passenger travel remains the dominant transport mode accounting for well over 70 % of total passenger transport.  Air transport demand continues to grow and now boasts a modal share of passenger transport of over 10 % — the largest share since 1995. Compared with 2015, air transport grew by 6 % in 2016.  Rail passenger travel is stable, accounting for 6.8 % of transport demand in 2016. Land-based passenger transport demand also grew in non-EU EEA member countries. In 2016, it grew by 16 % in Iceland, 3.3 % in Turkey, 2.1 % in Switzerland and less than 1 % in Norway compared with 2015, . In 2016, the main contributors to the increase in total freight transport were road and maritime freight (+5.2 % and 6.4 %, respectively). Total freight transport increased by 4.6 % compared with 2015, the largest annual increase since 2010. The modal share of freight transported over land remained largely constant and is still dominated by road transport (76 %), followed by rail (17 %) and inland waterways (6 %).
Land recycling and densification Land recycling is still low in all European countries: on average, land recycling accounted for only 13.5 % of total land consumption in European cities in the 2006-2012 period. The land use densification process, i.e. when land development makes maximum use of existing infrastructure, accounts for the largest proportion of land recycling. However, in most countries, land take dominates over densification in total land management with the exception of Finland and France. Grey recycling, i.e. internal conversions between residential and/or non-residential land cover types, is secondary to densification, ranging from 14 % to less than 1 % of total land consumption. Land take predominates over grey recycling in total land management in all countries. Green recycling, i.e. the development of green urban areas using previously built-up areas, is an important trend that reverses soil sealing, but it is a marginal process in all countries and, on average, it accounts for only 0.2 % of total land consumption.
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Sites designated under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives Since the introduction of the Habitats Directive in 1992 and the establishment of the Natura 2000 network, there has been a steady increase in the cumulative area of the network in EU Member States. In 2017, the network covered an area of 1 322 630 km 2 , encompassing nine terrestrial and five marine biogeographical regions. The coverage of terrestrial  Natura 2000 areas is 790 213 km 2 , which is 18.2  % of the EU’s land area, i.e. above the global biodiversity target for protected areas of 17 % (Aichi Target 11).
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Landscape fragmentation pressure from urban and transport infrastructure expansion Large parts of Europe are highly fragmented because of transport infrastructure and urban expansion. The Atlantic and Continental biogeographical regions show by far the highest degree of fragmentation in Europe. Around 50 % of the Atlantic region and 40 % of the Continental region are highly fragmented. The area with the lowest fragmentation covers less than 10 % of these regions. In the Alpine, Macaronesian and Arctic biogeographical regions, less than 3 % of the area is highly fragmented. The Benelux countries are the most fragmented in Europe. In Luxembourg 93 %  of the country is highly fragmented, while in Belgium the figure is 80 % and in the Netherlands 67 %. In eastern European countries, in the Mediterranean and in Ireland and Scotland the fragmenting pressure of urban and transport expansion is considerably weaker. Around 35 % of the cultivated areas, almost 30 % of grasslands and around 12 % of forests are under great fragmentation pressure. In contrast, close to 50 % of the area covered by mires, bogs, fens, heathland, scrub and tundra ecosystems are under low pressure by fragmentation. The forest ecosystems in the Alpine region are under the lowest pressure from fragmentation in Europe. All over Europe and in all the biogeographical regions, the fragmentation pressure is lower inside Natura 2000 sites than in their surrounding areas. Although cities and strongly populated areas are generally most fragmented in Europe, 50 % of sparsely populated regions e.g. in France and the Netherlands, are under great fragmentation pressure as well.
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Urban waste water treatment in Europe The treatment of urban waste water is fundamental to ensuring public health and environmental protection. Urban waste water treatment in all parts of Europe has improved over recent decades.   The proportion of the population connected to waste water treatment plants in northern countries has been above 80 % since 1995, with more than 70 % of urban waste water receiving tertiary treatment.  In central European countries, connection rates have increased since 1995 and are now at 97 %, with about 75 % receiving tertiary treatment. The proportion of the population connected to urban waste water treatment in southern, south-eastern and eastern Europe is generally lower than in other parts of Europe, but has increased over the last 10 years with levels now at about 70 %.
Habitats of European interest Progress towards the 2020 target of improving the conservation status of habitats covered by the EU Habitats Directive has not been substantial since 2010. This indicates that significant conservation efforts need to be implemented to revert current trends. At the EU level, only 16 % of the assessments of habitats protected under the Habitats Directive have a favourable conservation status. Bogs, mires and fens have the highest proportion of unfavourable assessments, followed closely by grasslands. Conservation status trends are quite variable across biogeographic regions, however, more habitats are stable than decreasing in the terrestrial regions. There are still significant gaps in knowledge on marine habitat types. At the EU Member State level, the majority of assessments indicate a low number of habitats with a favourable conservation status.
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Species of European interest The 2020 target of improving the conservation status of species covered by the Habitats Directive seems to have been met. This apparent progress, however, is largely attributable to improved data and changes in methodology. Similarly, there has been little progress towards the target for bird populations under the Birds Directive. This indicates that significant conservation efforts need to be implemented to revert current trends. At the EU level, 23 % of the assessments of species protected under the Habitats Directive indicate a favourable conservation status. At the same time, 60 % of species assessments are unfavourable. There are still significant gaps in knowledge, especially for marine species. Fish, molluscs and amphibians have a particularly high proportion of species that exhibit a deteriorating trend. The conservation status of species varies considerably from one biogeographic region to another. At Member State level, more unfavourable assessments are showing a decline than those that are improving. In the EU, over half of the bird species listed in the Birds Directive are considered to be ‘secure’, i.e. they show no foreseeable risk of extinction, decline or depletion. On the other hand, 17 % of the species listed are still threatened and another 15 % are declining or depleted.
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Aquaculture production in Europe Marine aquaculture production has been increasing in Europe (EEA-39 countries) since the early 1990s , mostly because of salmon production in Norway, the main producer.   Over the same period, inland aquaculture in Europe has remained stable. The main producer is Turkey, indicating that much of Europe's aquaculture production takes place outside the EU-28 countries(Figure 3). In 2017, the most cultivated species in Europe (EEA-39) was theAtlantic salmon, while in the EU-28 blue mussels were dominant. Other important species include rainbow trout, European sea bass, gilthead sea bream, oysters, and carps, barbels and other cyprinids. The countries that contribute the most to European production (EEA-39) are Norway (approximately 46 % of total European production), followed by Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Greece (Figure 6). These seven countries account for 90 % of all aquaculture production in Europe. Norway’s production is nearly all from Atlantic salmon farming. Turkish production consists mainly of trout (inland), sea bream and sea bass (marine).

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References and further reading
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Area 7. Sustainability and foresight Call for Expressions of Interest 2020 for experts to be appointed as members of the European Environment Agency Scientific Committee (EEA/SC/2020/1-7)
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Call for Expressions of Interest - EEA/SC/2020/1-7 Call for Expressions of Interest 2020 for experts to be appointed as members of the European Environment Agency Scientific Committee
Drivers of change: challenges and opportunities for sustainability in Europe The world is becoming increasingly interconnected through flows of information, resources, goods and services, people and ideas, and this implies that changes occurring in one part of the world are likely to have a ripple effect on others. This means that production and consumption systems in Europe are not isolated from one another or the rest of the world. Instead, they are influenced by multiple 'drivers of change'.

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