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Policy Document

DG CLIMA: Adaptation to climate change

Policy Document
Adaptation means anticipating the adverse effects of climate change and taking appropriate action to prevent or minimise the damage they can cause, or taking advantage of opportunities that may arise. It has been shown that well planned, early adaptation action saves money and lives in the future. This web portal provides information on all adaptation activities of the European Commission.

Related content

Related indicators

Indicator Specification Economic losses from climate-related extremes in Europe This indicator considers the number of fatalities, and the overall and insured economic losses from weather and climate-related events in EEA member countries since 1980. Hazards considered are those classified as meteorological hazards, hydrological hazards and climatological hazards as used by Munich Re and based on the classification by the International Council for Science (ICSU). Integrated Research on Disaster Risk. (2014). Peril Classification and Hazard Glossary (IRDR DATA Publication No. 1). Beijing: Integrated Research on Disaster Risk.
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Ocean acidification This indicator illustrates the global mean average rate of ocean acidification, quantified by decreases in pH, which is a measure of acidity and is defined here as the hydrogen ion concentration. A decrease in pH value corresponds to an increase in acidity. The observed decrease in ocean pH resulting from increasing concentrations of CO 2 is an important indicator of global change. This indicator provides information on: - trends in ocean acidity measured at the Aloha station; - yearly mean surface sea water pH levels reported on a global scale, based on information from the Copernicus Marine Service (CMEMS), with the estimated long-term decreasing trend.
Indicator Specification Meteorological and hydrological droughts in Europe Observed trend in the frequency of meteorological droughts Observed trend in runoff during the driest month Projected change in the frequency of meteorological droughts Projected change in 10-year river water deficit due to climate change
Indicator Specification Vegetation productivity The indicator addresses trends in land surface productivity derived from remote sensing observed time series of vegetation indices. The vegetation index used in the indicator is the Plant Phenology Index (PPI, Jin and Eklundh, 2014). PPI is based on the MODIS Nadir BRDF-Adjusted Reflectance product (MODIS MCD43 NBAR. The product provides reflectance data for the MODIS “land” bands (1 - 7) adjusted using a bi-directional reflectance distribution function. This function models values as if they were collected from a nadir-view to remove so called cross-track illumination effects. The Plant Phenology Index (PPI) is a new vegetation index optimized for efficient monitoring of vegetation phenology. It is derived from radiative transfer solution using reflectance in visible-red (RED) and near-infrared (NIR) spectral domains. PPI is defined to have a linear relationship to the canopy green leaf area index (LAI) and its temporal pattern is strongly similar to the temporal pattern of gross primary productivity (GPP) estimated by flux towers at ground reference stations. PPI is less affected by presence of snow compared to commonly used vegetation indices such as Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) or Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI). The product is distributed with 500 m pixel size (MODIS Sinusoidal Grid) with 8-days compositing period.  References: Jönsson P., Eklundh L., 2004. TIMESAT—a program for analyzing time-series of satellite sensor data. Computers & Geosciences 30 (2004) 833–845. Eklundh L., Jönsson P., 2015. TIMESAT: A Software Package for Time-Series Processing and Assessment of Vegetation Dynamics. In: Kuenzer C., Dech S., Wagner W. (eds) Remote Sensing Time Series. Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing, vol 22. Springer, Cham Jin, H., Eklundh, L. 2014. A physically based vegetation index for improved monitoring of plant phenology, Remote Sensing of Environment, 152, 512 – 525. Karkauskaite, P., Tagesson, T., Fensholt, R., 2017. Evaluation of the Plant Phenology Index (PPI), NDVI and EVI for Start-of-Season Trend Analysis of the Northern Hemisphere Boreal Zone, Remote Sensing, 9 (485), 21 pp. Jin, H.X.; Jönsson, A.M.; Bolmgren, K.; Langvall, O.; Eklundh, L., 2017. Disentangling remotely-sensed plant phenology and snow seasonality at northern Europe using MODIS and the plant phenology index. Remote Sensing of Environment 2017,198, 203-212. Abdi, A. M., N. Boke-Olén, H. Jin, L. Eklundh, T. Tagesson, V. Lehsten and J. Ardö (2019). First assessment of the plant phenology index (PPI) for estimating gross primary productivity in African semi-arid ecosystems. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 78: 249-260. Jin, H., A. M. Jönsson, C. Olsson, J. Lindström, P. Jönsson and L. Eklundh (2019). New satellite-based estimates show significant trends in spring phenology and complex sensitivities to temperature and precipitation at northern European latitudes. International Journal of Biometeorology 63(6): 763-775.
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Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets Cumulative ice mass loss and sea-level equivalent from Greenland and Antarctica.
Indicator Specification River floods This indicator monitors: observed regional trends in river flood discharges; projected changes in river floods with a return period of 100 years.
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Global and European sea-level rise This indicator comprises several metrics to describe past and future sea level rises globally and in European seas. Global sea level rise is reported because it is the second-most important metric of global climate change (after global mean surface temperature), and because it is a proxy of sea level rise in Europe. Past sea level trends across Europe are reported in two different ways: first, absolute sea level change based on satellite altimeter measurements that reflect primarily the contribution of global climate change to sea level rise in Europe; second, relative sea level change based on tide gauges that also include local land movement, which is more relevant for the development of regional adaptation strategies. The indicator also addresses changes in extreme sea level along the European coast. The following aspects of sea level rise are included: observed change in GMSL, based on two reconstructions from tide gauge measurements (since 1880) and on satellite altimeter data (since 1993); spatial trends in absolute sea level across European seas, based on satellite measurements (since 1993); spatial trends in relative sea level across European seas, based on European tide gauge stations with long time series (since 1970); projected change in global sea level for three different forcing scenarios; projected change in relative sea level across European seas; projected change in the frequency of flooding events along European coasts.
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Sea surface temperature This indicator monitors trends in average SST anomalies in Europe’s regional seas and in the global ocean.
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Forest fires This indicator monitors: the burnt areas in European countries; the current state of and projected changes in forest fire danger.
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Ocean acidification This indicator illustrates the global mean average rate of ocean acidification, quantified by decreases in pH, which is a measure of acidity defined here as the hydrogen ion concentration. A decrease in pH value corresponds to an increase in acidity. The observed decrease in ocean pH resulting from increasing concentrations of CO 2 is an important indicator of global change. This indicator provides information on: trends in ocean acidity measured at the Aloha station; yearly mean surface sea water pH levels reported on a global scale based on information from Copernicus Marine Service (CMEMS), with the long-term decreasing trend estimate.
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Global and European temperature This indicator shows absolute changes and rates of change in average near-surface temperature for the globe and for a region covering Europe. Near-surface air temperature gives one of the clearest and most consistent signals of global and regional climate change, especially in recent decades. It has been measured for many decades — even centuries at some locations — and a dense network of stations across the globe, especially in Europe, provides regular monitoring of temperature, using standardised measurements, quality control and homogeneity procedures. Global average annual temperature deviations (anomalies) are discussed relative to a ‘pre-industrial’ period between 1850 and 1899 (the beginning of instrumental temperature records). During this time, anthropogenic greenhouse gases from the industrial revolution (between 1750 and 1850) are considered to have had a relatively small influence on the climate compared with natural influences. However, it should be noted that owing to earlier changes in the climate due to internal and forced natural variability, there was not one single pre-industrial climate and it is not clear that there is a rigorous scientific definition of the term ‘pre-industrial climate’. Temperature changes also influence other aspects of the climate system that can have an impact on human activities, including sea level, intensity and frequency of floods and droughts, biota and food productivity, and infectious diseases. In addition to the global average target, seasonal variations and spatial distributions of temperature change are important, for example, to understand the risks that the current climate poses to human and natural systems, and to assess how these may be impacted by future climate change.
Indicator Specification Heating and cooling degree days This indicator looks at the following: Time series of population-weighted heating and cooling degree days averaged over Europe; Observed trends in heating and cooling degree days; Projected trends in heating and cooling degree days.
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Arctic and Baltic sea ice This indicator measures: trends in Arctic sea ice extent in March and September; the maximum extent of ice cover in the Baltic Sea; projected changes in sea ice extent in the northern hemisphere in September.
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Global and European temperature This indicator shows absolute changes and rates of change in average near-surface temperature for the globe and for a region covering Europe. Near-surface air temperature gives one of the clearest and most consistent signals of global and regional climate change, especially in recent decades. It has been measured for many decades — even centuries at some locations — and a dense network of stations across the globe, especially in Europe, provides regular monitoring of temperature, using standardised measurements, quality control and homogeneity procedures. Global average annual temperature deviations (anomalies) are discussed relative to a ‘pre-industrial’ period between 1850 and 1899 (the beginning of instrumental temperature records). During this time, anthropogenic greenhouse gases from the industrial revolution (between 1750 and 1850) are considered to have had a relatively small influence on the climate compared with natural influences. However, it should be noted that owing to earlier changes in the climate due to internal and forced natural variability, there was not one single pre-industrial climate and it is not clear that there is a rigorous scientific definition of the term ‘pre-industrial climate’. Temperature changes also influence other aspects of the climate system that can have an impact on human activities, including sea level, intensity and frequency of floods and droughts, biota and food productivity, and infectious diseases. In addition to the global average target, seasonal variations and spatial distributions of temperature change are important, for example, to understand the risks that the current climate poses to human and natural systems, and to assess how these may be impacted by future climate change.
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Global and European sea level This indicator comprises several metrics to describe past and future sea level rise globally and in European seas. Global sea level rise is reported because it is the second-most important metric of global climate change (after global mean surface temperature), and because it is a proxy of sea level rise in Europe. Past sea level trends across Europe are reported in two different ways: first, absolute sea level change based on satellite altimeter measurements that reflect primarily the contribution of global climate change to sea level rise in Europe; second, relative sea level change based on tide gauges that also include local land movement, which is more relevant for the development of regional adaptation strategies. The indicator also addresses changes in extreme sea level along the European coast. The following aspects of sea level rise are included: Observed change in global mean sea level, based on two reconstructions from tide gauge measurements (since 1880) and on satellite altimeter data (since 1993) Spatial trends in absolute sea level across European seas, based on satellite measurements (since 1993) Spatial trends in relative sea level across European seas, based on European tide gauge stations with long time series (since 1970) Projected change in global sea level for different forcing scenarios, including contributions from different sources Projected change in relative sea level across European seas Projected change in the frequency of flooding events along European coasts
Indicator Specification Global and European temperature This indicator shows absolute changes and rates of change in average near-surface temperature for the globe and for a region covering Europe. Near-surface air temperature gives one of the clearest and most consistent signals of global and regional climate change, especially in recent decades. It has been measured for many decades — even centuries at some locations — and a dense network of stations across the globe, especially in Europe, provides regular monitoring of temperature, using standardised measurements, quality control and homogeneity procedures. Global average annual temperature deviations (anomalies) are discussed relative to a ‘pre-industrial’ period between 1850 and 1899 (the beginning of instrumental temperature records). During this time, anthropogenic greenhouse gases from the industrial revolution (between 1750 and 1850) are considered to have had a relatively small influence on the climate compared with natural influences. However, it should be noted that owing to earlier changes in the climate due to internal and forced natural variability, there was not one single pre-industrial climate and it is not clear that there is a rigorous scientific definition of the term ‘pre-industrial climate’. Temperature changes also influence other aspects of the climate system that can have an impact on human activities, including sea level, intensity and frequency of floods and droughts, biota and food productivity, and infectious diseases. In addition to the global average target, seasonal variations and spatial distributions of temperature change are important, for example, to understand the risks that current climate poses to human and natural systems and to assess how these may be impacted by future climate change.
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Economic losses from climate-related extremes in Europe This indicator considers the number of fatalities, and the overall and insured economic losses from climate-related disasters.
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Hail Hail is commonly classified according to diameter of the hailstones; for example, hail >=2cm diameter. Hailstorm intensity scale classifies hail on a scale from H0, being hard hail with diameter 5 mm causing no damage to H10, being super hailstorms with diameter >100 mm and causing extensive structural damage with risk of severe or fatal injuries to people. Hail is here defined with the potential hail index (PHI), which quantifies the atmospheric potential for hailstorms and can be derived from atmospheric numerical models. 
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Wind storms Projected changes in extreme wind speed (98th percentile of daily maximum wind speed) based on GCM and RCM ensemble
Indicator Specification Heavy precipitation in Europe Heavy precipitation is defined as the maximum annual 5-day consecutive precipitation. Trends are calculated for the period between 1960 and 2015. Projected changes in heavy precipitation are defined as changes in the 95th percentile of daily precipitation (only days with precipitation >1 mm/day are considered). Changes between the 1971-2000 and 2071-2100 are calculated using a multi-model ensemble forced by RCP8.5.
Indicator Specification Mean precipitation Observed trends in annual and summer precipitation across Europe 1960-2015 Projected changes in mean annual and summer precipitation (%) in the period 2071–2100 compared with the baseline period 1971–2000 for the forcing scenario RCP8.5. Model simulations are based on the multi-model ensemble average of many different RCM simulations from the EURO-CORDEX initiative.
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Heating and cooling degree days Time series of population-weighted heating and cooling degree days averaged over Europe Trend in heating and cooling degree days
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Meteorological and hydrological droughts Observed trends in frequency and severity of meteorological droughts Model-based estimate of past change in summer low flows Projected change in the frequency of meteorological droughts for different periods and scenarios Projected change in 20-year return level minimum flow and deficit volumes due to climate change and changes in water use
Indicator Specification Crop water demand Trend in crop water deficit for grain maize during the growing period Projected change in the crop water deficit for grain maize during the growing period
Indicator Specification Growing season for agricultural crops Rate of change in the number of frost-free days per year
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Agrophenology Trend in flowering date for winter wheat
Indicator Specification Water-limited crop yield Projected changes in water-limited yield of winter wheat Projected changes in water-limited crop yield Probability of the occurrence of adverse agroclimatic conditions for wheat under baseline and projected climate
Indicator Specification Vector-borne diseases Current distribution of Ixodes ricinus ticks Current distribution of Aedes albopictus Climatic suitability for the mosquitos Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus Current distribution of West Nile virus infections Projected change in the climatic suitability for chikungunya transmission Projected distribution of West Nile Virus infections
Indicator Specification Extreme temperatures and health Associations between temperature and mortality in four European cities
Indicator Specification Floods and health Deaths related to flooding
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Forest fires Burnt area in five southern European countries Current state of forest fire danger Projected state of forest fire danger Past trend of forest fire danger Projected changes in forest fire danger
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Forest composition and distribution Projected change in climatic suitability for broadleaf and needleleaf trees
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Distribution shifts of plant and animal species Trend in thermophilic species in bird and butterfly communities Projected change in climatically suitable areas for bumblebees
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Phenology of plant and animal species Trends in spring phenology
Indicator Specification Soil moisture Past trends: modelled trend in soil moisture over a depth of one metre Projections: change in the Palmer Drought Severity Index
Indicator Specification Water temperature Observed trends in water temperature of large European rivers and lakes
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River floods Number of flood phenomena with 'very high' severity Projected change in river floods with a return period of 100 years
Indicator Specification River flow Model-based estimate of past change in annual river flows Projected change in seasonal river flow for 12 rivers
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Ocean acidification Decline in ocean acidity measured at the Aloha station Projected change in global ocean surface acidity
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Sea surface temperature Trend in average sea surface temperature anomaly in the global ocean and in Europe’s regional seas
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Ocean heat content Observed change in global ocean heat content at different depths
Indicator Specification Distribution shifts of marine species Ratio of Calanus species in the Greater North Sea Observed change in the distribution of demersal fish in response to the observed rise in sea surface temperature
Indicator Specification Snow cover Trend in spring snow cover extent over the Northern Hemisphere and in Europe Trend in March snow mass in Europe (excluding mountain areas) Projected change in Northern hemisphere spring snow cover extent
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Glaciers Cumulative specific net mass balance of European glaciers Projected changes in the volume of all mountain glaciers and ice caps in the European glaciated regions
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Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets Cumulative ice mass loss and sea-level equivalent from Greenland
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Arctic and Baltic sea ice Trend in Arctic sea ice extent in March and September Maximum extent of ice cover in the Baltic Sea Projected changes in Northern Hemisphere September sea ice extent
Indicator Specification Water- and food-borne diseases Time series of vibriosis infections in the Baltic Sea region Current and projected risk of vibriosis infections in the Baltic Sea region
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Ocean oxygen content Distribution of oxygen-depleted ‘dead zones’ in European seas Development of oxygen depletion in the Baltic Sea over time
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Global and European sea level This indicator comprises several metrics to describe past and future sea level rise globally and in European seas. Global sea-level rise is reported because it is the second-most important metric of global climate change (after global mean surface temperature), and because it is a proxy of sea level rise in Europe. Past sea-level trends across Europe are reported in two different ways: first, absolute sea level change based on satellite altimeter measurements that reflect primarily the contribution of global climate change to sea level rise in Europe; second, relative sea level change based on tide gauges that also include local land movement, which is more relevant for the development of regional adaptation strategies. The following components on observed sea-level rise are included: Change in global mean sea level (time series starting in 1880, in mm), based on a reconstruction from various data sources (since 1880) and on satellite altimeter data (since 1993) Trend in absolute sea level across Europe (map, in mm/year), based on satellite measurements (since 1992) Trend in relative sea level across Europe (map, in mm/year), based on selected European tide gauge stations (since 1970) Furthermore, this indicator presents projections for sea level rise in the 21st century, both globally and for the European seas. The indicator also presents the contributions to past and future global sea level rise from different sources. Finally, the indicator presents information on observed and projected changes in extreme sea level along European coasts. However, due to insufficient data availability this information cannot be presented by means of figures or maps.
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Global and European temperature This indicator shows absolute changes and rates of change in average near-surface temperature for the globe and for a region covering Europe. Near-surface air temperature gives one of the clearest and most consistent signals of global and regional climate change, especially in recent decades. It has been measured for many decades - even centuries at some locations - and a dense network of stations across the globe, especially in Europe, provides regular monitoring of temperature, using standardised measurements, quality control and homogeneity procedures. Global average annual temperature deviations, ‘anomalies’, are discussed relative to a ‘pre-industrial’ period between 1850 and 1899 (the beginning of instrumental temperature records). During this time, anthropogenic greenhouse gases from the industrial revolution (between 1750 and 1850) are considered to have a relatively small influence on the climate compared to natural influences. However, it should be noted that owing to earlier changes in the climate due to internal and forced natural variability, there was not one single pre-industrial climate and it is not clear that there is a rigorous scientific definition of the term ‘pre-industrial climate’. Temperature changes also influence other aspects of the climate system that can have an impact on human activities, including sea level, intensity and frequency of floods and droughts, biota and food productivity, and infectious diseases. In addition to the global average target, seasonal variations and spatial distributions of temperature change are important, for example, to understand the risks that current climate poses to human and natural systems and to assess how these may be impacted by future climate change.
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Economic losses from climate-related extremes This indicator considers the number of natural disasters and the overall and insured losses from natural disasters.
Indicator Specification Air pollution due to ozone: health impacts and effects of climate change The indicator presents an overview of ozone concentrations over Europe in recent years, their effects on human health, and an estimate of the changes in these concentrations due to the effect of climate change. It presents the following: The annual mean of the maximum daily eight hour mean ozone concentrations by station type. The modelled projected change, due to climate change, in summertime surface ozone concentrations over Europe in the middle and at the end of the 21 st century. The relative effect of climate change on ozone concentrations in the middle of the 21 st century, compared to other contributions. A selection of meteorological parameters that might increase under future climate change and their impact on ozone levels.
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Global and European temperatures This indicator shows absolute changes and rates of change in average near-surface temperature for the globe and for a region covering Europe. Near-surface air temperature gives one of the clearest and most consistent signals of global and regional climate change, especially in recent decades. It has been measured for many decades or even centuries at some locations and a dense network of stations across the globe, and especially in Europe, provide regular monitoring of temperature, using standardised measurements, quality control and homogeneity procedures. This indicator provides guidance for the following policy-relevant questions:  Will the global average temperature increase stay within the UNFCCC policy target of 2.0°C above pre-industrial levels?  Will the rate of global average temperature increase stay below the indicative proposed target of 0.2°C increase per decade? Temperature changes also influence other aspects of the climate system which can impact on human activities, such as sea level rise, intensity and frequency of floods and droughts, biota and crop productivity and vector-borne diseases. In consideration with the target of limiting the rise in global average temperature, understanding seasonal variations and spatial distributions of temperature change are important, for example to manage the risks that current climate poses to human and natural systems and to assess how these may be impacted by future climate change.
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Storms Projected changes in extreme wind speed (98th percentile of daily maximum wind speed) based on GCM and RCM ensemble
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Global and European sea-level rise This indicator comprises several metrics to describe past and future sea-level rise globally and in European seas. Global sea-level rise is reported because it is the second-most important metric of global climate change (after global mean surface temperature), and because it is a proxy of sea-level rise in Europe. Past sea-level trends across Europe are reported in two different ways: first, absolute sea level change based on satellite altimeter measurements that reflect primarily the contribution of global climate change to sea-level rise in Europe; second, relative sea-level change based on tide gauges that also include local land movement, which is more relevant for the development of regional adaptation strategies. The following components on observed sea-level rise are included: Change in global mean sea level (time series starting in 1880, in mm), based on a reconstruction from various data sources (since 1880) and on satellite altimeter data (since 1993) Trend in absolute sea level across Europe (map, in mm/year), based on satellite measurements (since 1992) Trend in relative sea level across Europe (map, in mm/year), based on selected European tide gauge stations (since 1970) Furthermore, this indicator presents projections for sea level rise in the 21st century, both globally and for the European seas. The indidator also presents the contributions to past and future global sea level rise from different sources. Finally, the indicator presents information on observed and projected changes in extreme sea level along European coasts. However, due to insufficient data availability this information cannot be presented by means of figures or maps.
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Precipitation extremes Trends in consecutive wet days and consecutive dry days Projected changes in heavy precipitation in summer and winter
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Global and European sea-level rise This indicator comprises several metrics to describe past and future sea-level rise globally and in European seas. Global sea-level rise is reported because it is the second-most important metric of global climate change (after global mean surface temperature), and because it is a proxy of sea-level rise in Europe. Past sea-level trends across Europe are reported in two different ways: first, absolute sea level change based on satellite altimeter measurements that reflect primarily the contribution of global climate change to sea-level rise in Europe; second, relative sea-level change based on tide gauges that also include local land movement, which is more relevant for the development of regional adaptation strategies. The following components on observed sea-level rise are included: Change in global mean sea level (time series starting in 1880, in mm), based on a reconstruction from various data sources (since 1880) and on satellite altimeter data (since 1993) Trend in relative sea level across Europe (map, in mm/year), based on selected European tide gauge stations (since 1970) Trend in absolute sea level across Europe (map, in mm/year), based on satellite measurements (since 1992) In addition, this indicator informs about the contributions from various sources to the observed global sea level rise (since 1901). Finally, this indicator presents projections for sea level rise in the 21st century, both globally and for the European seas.
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River flow This indicator shows the trends in monthly stream flow over more than 4 decades for locations across Europe. The indicator also shows the projected change in annual and seasonal river flow in Europe for 2071-2100 (SRES A1B scenario) compared to 1961-1990. For some selected locations, the projected change in daily average river flow for 2071-2100 compared to 1961-1990 is shown.
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Snow cover Trend in spring snow cover extent over the Northern Hemisphere and in Europe Trend in March snow mass in Europe (excluding mountain areas) Projected change in Northern hemisphere spring snow cover extent
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Greenland ice sheet Cumulative ice mass loss and sea-level equivalent from Greenland Yearly cumulated melt area of Greenland ice sheet
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Forest growth Forest area Volume of forest biomass
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Agrophenology Observed change in flowering date for winter wheat Projected change in dates of flowering and maturation for winter wheat
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Ocean heat content Observed change in global ocean heat content
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Vector-borne diseases Distribution of Borrelia burgdorferi in questing I. ricinus ticks in Europe Change in distribution of Aedes albopictus in Europe Climatic suitability for the mosquitos Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti in Europe Projected change in climatic conditions for Chikungunya transmission
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Extreme temperatures and health Daily mortality rates in 15 European cities by apparent temperature in summer time
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Floods and health Number of people affected by flooding per million population in the WHO European Region
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Air pollution by ozone and health Annual mean ozone concentrations by station type Modelled change in tropospheric ozone concentrations over Europe Selection of meteorological parameters that might increase under future climate change and their impact on ozone levels
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Damages from weather and climate-related events Number of natural disasters Overall and insured losses from natural disasters
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Heating degree days Trend in heating degree days in the EU-27
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Forest fires Burnt area in five southern European countries State and trend of fire danger Projected changes in fire danger
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Irrigation water requirement Rate of change of the meteorological water balance Projected change in water availability for irrigation in the Mediterranean region
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Water-limited crop productivity Projected changes in effective solar radiation Projected changes in water-limited crop yield Projected change in water-limited wheat production
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Growing season for agricultural crops Change in the number of frost-free days per year
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Soil moisture Global surface soil moisture content based on remote sensing data
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Soil erosion Estimated soil erosion by water in Europe Estimated number of days for wind erosion
Indicator Specification Soil organic carbon Variations in topsoil organic carbon content across Europe
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Distribution of marine species Calanus ratio in the North Sea Annual mean number of Calanus per sample
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Phenology of marine species Decapoda larvae abundance and phenology in the central North Sea
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Sea surface temperature Annual average sea surface temperature anomaly in the global ocean and in different European seas Mean annual sea surface temperature trend in European seas
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Ocean acidification Decline in ocean acidity
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Species interactions Projected spatial mismatches of the Portuguese Dappled White butterfly and its host plants
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Distribution and abundance of animal species Observed latitudinal shifts of four species groups over 25 years in Britain Temporal trend of bird and butterfly community temperature index across Europe Projected impact of climate change on the potential distribution of reptiles and amphibians Projected changes in the climate niche space of the Small Tortoise shell Changes in mammalian species richness
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Water temperature Water temperatures in five selected European rivers and lakes in the 20th century
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Distribution of plant species Expected average percentage of stable area of 856 plant species for two different climate scenarios
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Animal phenology Changes in egg-laying dates of the pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca)
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Plant and fungi phenology Trends in spring phenology
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Lake and river ice cover Observed change in duration of lake and river ice cover a) Danube River, at Budapest, 1876–2011 and b) Lake Kallavesi, Finland, 1833–2011.
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River flow drought Water scarcity and drought events in Europe Projected change in minimum river flow with return period of 20 years
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River floods Occurrence of major floods in Europe Projected change in river floods with a return period of 100 years
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River flow Trends in monthly stream flow Projected change in average annual and seasonal river flow Projected change in daily average river flow
Indicator Specification Storm surges Surge height
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Global and European sea-level rise This indicator comprises several metrics to describe past and (to a limited extent) future sea-level rise globally and in Europe. Global sea-level rise is reported because it is the second-most important metric of global climate change (after global mean surface temperature), and because it is a proxy of sea-level rise in Europe. Past sea-level trends across Europe are reported in two different ways: first, absolute sea level change based on satellite altimeter measurements that reflect primarily the contribution of global climate change to sea-level rise in Europe; seconed, relative sea-level change based on tide gauges that also include local land movement, which is more relevant for the development of regional adaptation strategies. The following components are included: Change in global mean sea level (time series starting in 1880, in mm), based on a reconstruction from various data sources (since 1880) and on satellite altimeter data (since 1993) Trend in absolute sea level across Europe (map, in mm/year), based on satellite measurements (since 1992) Trend in relative sea level across Europe (map, in mm/year), based on selected European tide gauge stations (since 1970) In addition, this indicator informs about the contributions from various sources to the observed global sea level rise (since 1972). Finally, this indicator presents projections for sea level rise in the 21st century, both globally and for the European seas.
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Arctic and Baltic Sea ice Trend in Arctic sea ice extent in March and September Maximum ice cover extent in the Baltic Sea Projected changes in Nothern Hemisphere sea ice extent
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Permafrost Observed permafrost temperatures from selected boreholes in European mountains Comparison of active layer thickness from boreholes in the Alps, Norway and Svalbard Projected change in Northern Hemisphere near-surface permafrost area
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Glaciers Cumulative specific net mass balance of European glaciers Projected changes in the volume of all mountain glaciers and ice caps in the European glaciated regions
Indicator Specification
Archived
Snow cover Trend in autumn, winter and spring snow cover extent over the Northern Hemisphere Trend in March snow mass in Europe (excluding mountain areas) Projected changes in annual snowfall days
Indicator Specification
Archived
Storms Trends in the extreme wind speeds (95th percentile of daily maximum wind speed) Projected changes in extreme wind speed (98th percentile of daily maximum wind speed) based on GCM and RCM ensemble
Indicator Specification
Archived
Mean precipitation Trends in annual precipitation across Europe Projected changes in annual and summer precipitation
Indicator Specification
Archived
Precipitation extremes Trends in consecutive wet days and consecutive dry days Projected changes in 20-year maximum precipitation in summer and winter
Indicator Specification
Archived
Greenland ice sheet Estimated changes of the ice mass in Greenland Yearly cumulated melt area of Greenland ice sheet
Indicator Specification
Archived
Global and European temperature This indicator shows absolute changes and rates of change in average near-surface temperature for the globe and for a region covering Europe. Near-surface air temperature gives one of the clearest and most consistent signals of global and regional climate change, especially in recent decades. It has been measured for many decades or even centuries at some locations and a dense network of stations across the globe, and especially in Europe, provide regular monitoring of temperature, using standardised measurements, quality control and homogeneity procedures. This indicator provides guidance for the following policy-relevant questions:  Will the global average temperature increase stay within the UNFCCC policy target of 2.0°C above pre-industrial levels?  Will the rate of global average temperature increase stay below the indicative proposed target of 0.2°C increase per decade? Global average annual temperature deviations, ‘anomalies’, are discussed relative to a ‘pre-industrial’ period between 1850 and 1899 (beginning of instrumental temperature records).  During this time, anthropogenic greenhouse gases from the industrial revolution (between 1750 and 1850) are considered to have a relatively small influence on climate compared to natural influences. However it should be noted that owing to earlier changes in the climate due to internal and forced natural variability there was not one single pre-industrial climate and it is not clear that there is a rigorous scientific definition of the term ‘pre-industrial climate’. Temperature changes also influence other aspects of the climate system which can impact on human activities, including sea level, intensity and frequency of floods and droughts, biota and food productivity and infectious diseases. In addition to the global average target, seasonal variations and spatial distributions of temperature change are important, for example to understand the risks that current climate poses to human and natural systems and to assess how these may be impacted by future climate change.

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For references, please go to https://www.eea.europa.eu/policy-documents/dg-clima-adaptation-to-climate-change or scan the QR code.

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