Persistent organic pollutant emissions in Europe

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) accumulate in ecosystems and harm human health. Targeted EU legislation, in line with commitments under the UNECE Air Convention, has led to marked POP reductions since 1990. Between 2005 and 2023, emissions have continued to fall: hexachlorobenzene emissions reduced by 62%, polychlorinated biphenyls by 68%, dioxins and furans by 72%, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by 28%. The most significant POP sources are the commercial, institutional and households, and industrial processes and product use sectors.

Figure 1. Emission trends of persistent organic air pollutants in EU-27 between 2005 and 2023, presented as a percentage of their level in 2005

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including hexachlorobenzene (HCB), polychlorinated dibenzo-para-dioxins (PCDDs; dioxins) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs; furans), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are directly toxic to human health, animals and plants. These bioaccumulative compounds are of particular concern due to their possible carcinogenic, immunological and reproductive effects, and their potential impact on human development. Eliminating POPs is therefore a key goal of environmental action at European Union (EU) and international levels.

The EU is a party to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (UNECE Air Convention). The Air Convention’s 1998 Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants obliges parties to reduce emissions of certain POPs. The protocol has also banned or restricted the use of some compounds. In 2001, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was adopted, building on the Aarhus Protocol to take action on POPs at the international level.

In the EU, the National Emission reduction Commitments Directive (NECD) requires the Member States to provide annual inventories of POP emissions.

Improvements in abatement technologies and targeted EU legislation have contributed to marked reductions in POP emissions in the EU since 1990. These include the Persistent Organic Pollutants Regulation and the Industrial Emissions Directive.

Between 2005 and 2023, emissions of PCDDs and PCDFs, HCB, PCBs and PAHs decreased by 62%, 68%, 72% and 28%, respectively. Reductions were notable in the industrial processes and product use, energy production and distribution, and waste sectors. Yet, the industrial processes and product use sector remains a significant source of POPs emissions in the EU. The commercial, institutional and household sector is also a significant source of POPs.

Figure 2. Changes in persistent organic air pollutant emissions by EU Member State in 2023 compared to 2005 levels

POP emissions fell in most EU Member States between 2005 and 2023. However, in some countries, the POP emissions increased during this time. Most notably, HCB emissions have risen significantly in Malta and PCB emissions in Greece. In some cases, this may reflect reporting anomalies rather than increases in emissions, or be due to relatively small increases in absolute emissions from very low baseline levels.

In 2023, Spain accounted for the largest proportion of the EU’s PCDD/PCDF and PCB emissions, while Poland accounted for the largest proportion of the PAH emissions, and Finland for most of HCB emissions.

Supporting information

DefinitionMethodology

This indicator is based on the national total and sectoral emissions data that are officially reported to the EEA and the Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP) under the UNECE Air Convention. The data are consistent with the emissions data reported by the EU in its annual submission to the UNECE Air Convention.

Recommended methodologies for emission inventory estimation are included in the EMEP/EEA air pollutant emission inventory guidebook. The original Member State submissions are available from the EEA Data Service. For the collated EU dataset, where necessary, gaps in reported data are filled by the EEA (see "Methodology for gap-filling" below). The final gap-filled data used in this indicator are available from the EEA DataHub.

The gap-filling methodology enables a complete time-series trend to be compiled despite gaps in the data reported by a Member State. It applies a stepwise approach using emission data from other reporting obligations to fill gaps in the national data sets, followed by further gap-filling procedures such as interpolation or extrapolation and manual changes. For the pollutants for which a country did not report emissions for any year, gap-filling cannot be performed. For these pollutants, therefore, the aggregated data for the EU are not complete and are likely to underestimate true emissions. Further methodological details of the gap-filling procedure are provided in the European Union emission inventory report 1990-2023 under the UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (Air Convention).

Policy/environmental relevance

POPs, including PAHs, are recognised as being directly toxic to biota. They can progressively accumulate in the food chain. This means that chronic exposure of lower organisms to even relatively low concentrations can expose predatory organisms, including humans and wildlife, to potentially harmful concentrations. POPs, including PAHs, have been shown to possess a number of toxicological properties. The major concern is centred around their possible carcinogenic, immunological and reproductive effects, but more recently concern has also been expressed over their possible harmful effects on human development. POPs are also of concern due to heir ability to cause harmful effects at low concentrations. Their relative toxic/carcinogenic potencies are compound specific.

Targeted European Commission legislation (directives and regulations), coupled with improved control and abatement techniques, have led to reduced emissions of POPs. Such legislation is described below.

The objective of the 1998 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Aarhus Protocol on POPs (to UNECE Air Convention) is to eliminate any discharges, emissions and losses of POPs. The protocol bans the production and use of some products (aldrin, chlordane, chlordecone, dieldrin, endrin, hexabromobiphenyl, mirex and toxaphene), while others are scheduled for a phased elimination (DDT, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene and PCBs). In 2009, the protocol was updated to include seven additional substances: hexachlorobutadiene, octabromodiphenyl ether, pentachlorobenzene, pentabromodiphenyl ether, perfluorooctane sulfonates, polychlorinated naphthalenes, and short-chain chlorinated paraffins. Finally, the protocol severely restricts the use of DDT, hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), including lindane, and PCBs, and includes provisions for dealing with the wastes of products that will be banned. It also obliges parties to reduce their emissions of dioxins and furans, PAHs and HCB to below their 1990 levels (or an alternative year between 1985 and 1995). It also lays down specific limit values for the incineration of municipal, hazardous and medical waste.

The 2001 UNEP Stockholm Convention on POPs aims to reduce and ultimately cease the manufacture, use, storage and emission of POPs, as well as to destroy existing stocks. It provides for measures to reduce or eliminate emissions resulting from intentional and unintentional production and use. It also plans to meet the obligations on technical and financial assistance for developing countries and countries with economies in transition, and to cooperate and exchange information. Twelve POPs were covered under the original scope of the Stockholm Convention:

pesticides: aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex and toxaphene;
industrial chemicals: HCB and PCBs;
by-products: HCB, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDDs/PCDFs), and PCBs.

In 2009, additional chemicals were added to the Stockholm Convention:

pesticides: chlordecone, alpha hexachlorocyclohexane, beta hexachlorocyclohexane, lindane and pentachlorobenzene;
industrial chemicals: hexabromobiphenyl, hexabromodiphenyl ether and heptabromodiphenyl ether, pentachlorobenzene, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid and its salts, and perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride, tetrabromodiphenyl ether and pentabromodiphenyl ether;
by-products: alpha-HCH, beta-HCH and pentachlorobenzene.

The European Commission’s Communication on a Community strategy for dioxins, furans and PCBs aims to assess the current state of the environment and to reduce human exposure and long-term environmental effects. This communication does not propose legislative measures, but could be the basis for a Community action plan.

Directive 2010/75/EU on the limitation of emissions of certain pollutants into the air from large combustion plants has had the effect of reducing PAH emissions via dust control and absorption.

Regulation (EC) No 850/2004 on persistent organic pollutants entered into force on 20 May 2004. The main purpose of this regulation is to enable the European Community to ratify the Stockholm Convention and the Aarhus Protocol on POPs. The regulation also deals with stockpiles of redundant substances.

Directive (EU) 2024/2881 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe amends and recasts Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality and Directive 2004/107/EC concerning heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air. The revised Directive introduces updated provisions, including new target and limit values, aimed at further controlling air pollutants.

There are also a number of specific EU environmental quality and emission standards for POPs in coastal and inland waters, drinking waters, etc. These have only indirect relevance to air emissions, as they do not directly specify emission or precipitation quality requirements, but rather specify the required quality of receiving waters. Such measures include the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) and Directive 2008/105/EC.

Accuracy and uncertainties

Methodological uncertainty

The use of gap filling for countries that have not reported emissions for one or more years can potentially lead to artificial trends but is considered unavoidable for obtaining a comprehensive and comparable set of emissions data for European countries for policy analysis purposes.

Data sets uncertainty

The levels of uncertainty in the emission estimates of PAHs reported by countries are considered higher than for other, more ‘traditional’ air pollutants, such as NO_x and SO₂, because of the relatively high levels of uncertainty that exist with regard to both activity data and emission factors for this group of pollutants. Emission estimates for the other POPs are also considered to have a high degree of uncertainty.

Rationale uncertainty

This indicator is regularly updated by the EEA and is used in state of the environment assessments. The uncertainties related to methodology and data sets are therefore important. Any uncertainties involved in the calculation and the data sets must be accurately communicated in the assessment, to prevent erroneous information from influencing policy actions or processes.

Additional reading:

COM(2001) 245 final: The Clean Air for Europe (CAFE) programme (EC, 2013);
The new Industrial and Livestock Rearing Emissions Directive 2024/1785 (IED 2.0) (EU, 2024).

Data sources and providers

Metadata

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Persistent organic pollutant emissions in Europe

Figure 1. Emission trends of persistent organic air pollutants in EU-27 between 2005 and 2023, presented as a percentage of their level in 2005

Figure 2. Changes in persistent organic air pollutant emissions by EU Member State in 2023 compared to 2005 levels

Supporting information

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References and footnotes