Exposure of ecosystems to acidification in the EU-28 (critical loads from 43 % in 1980 to 7 % in 2010) and EEA member countries (to 7 %) has been decreasing since 1980s, although in some areas reduction targets, as defined as interim objective in the EU's National Emission Ceilings Directive, have not been met. Exposure to acidification can lead to disturbances in the structure and function of ecosystems. As a result, full ecosystem recovery may take longer time after reaching the targets.
Exposure of ecosystems to eutrophication in the EU-28 (critical loads from 84 % in 1990 to 63 % in 2010) and EEA member countries (to 55 %) has been decreasing since 1990. The area in exceedance is projected to further decrease to 58 % in 2020 for the EU-28 (48 % in the EEA member countries), assuming current legislation is implemented. The magnitude of the exceedances is also projected to decline considerably in most areas, except for a few 'hot spot' areas in western France and the border areas between Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands, as well as in northern Italy.
Looking ahead, only 4 % of the EU-28 ecosystem area (3 % in EEA member countries) is projected to exceed acidification critical loads in 2020 if current legislation is fully implemented. The eutrophication reduction target set in the updated EU air pollution strategy proposed by the European Commission in late 2013, will be met by 2030 if it is assumed that all maximum technically feasible reduction measures are implemented, but it will not be met by current legislation.
For ozone, most of Europe's vegetation and agricultural crops are exposed to ozone levels that exceed the long term objective specified in the EU's Air Quality Directive. A significant fraction is also exposed to levels above the target value threshold defined in the directive. The effect-related concentrations show large year-to-year variations. Over the period 1996-2017, the concentrations observed at rural background stations increased until 2006, after which they decreased. After a 6-year period (2009-2014) of relatively low values, the fraction of agricultural crops exposed to levels above the target value increased again to 30 % in 2015. However, at the low end of the exposure spectrum there was an increase in the area with levels below the long-term objective from 15 % (2014) to 24 % (2017).
During the past 5 years, around 50-65 % of the forest area was exposed to ozone concentrations above the critical level set by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) for the protection of forests.
Industry is still a significant source of pollutant releases to Europe’s environment.
Releases of pollutants to air and water by European industry have generally decreased during the last decade.
Environmental regulation and improved pollutant abatement technology, among other factors, have led to decreasing pollutant releases to air and water in Europe.
Soil contamination in Europe is, among other things, linked to industrial activity.
Waste transfers from industrial facilities in the EU have remained relatively stable in the last decade.
Across the EEA-33 countries, emissions of lead (Pb) decreased by 93 %, mercury (Hg) by 72 % and cadmium (Cd) by 64 % from 1990.
The majority of the decrease in Pb emissions had occurred by 2004, mainly as a result of the phase out of leaded petrol across Europe.
Since 1990, the two sectors contributing most to the decrease in Hg emissions have been 'Energy use in industry' and 'Industrial processes and product use'.
The industry sector has accounted for 60 % of Cd emission reductions since 1990.
Since 1990, emissions of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) decreased in the EEA-33 countries, e.g. hexachlorobenzene (HCB) decreased by 95 %, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) by 75 %, dioxins and furans by around 70 % and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by 83 %.
The majority of countries report that POP emissions fell during the period 1990 to 2017.
In 2017, the most significant sources of emissions included the ‘Commercial, institutional and households’ and ‘Industrial processes and product use’ sectors.
In EEA countries, ammonia emissions have decreased by 18 % (23 % in the EU-28) overall since 1990, but have been continuously increasing since 2014.
Since 1990, emissions of both nitrogen oxides and non-methane volatile organic compounds decreased by more than a half, with emission of nitrogen oxides decreasing by 57 % and non-methane volatile organic compounds by 54% in EEA countries (61 % and 58 % in the EU-28).
Emissions of fine particulate matter decreased by almost one third (28 %) in both EEA countries and in the EU-28 from 2000.
Since 1990, level of emissions of sulphur oxides strongly decreased by 82 % in EEA countries (91 % in the EU-28).
Air quality in Europe has improved over the last decades as a direct result of targeted policies and technological improvements. However, between 2015 and 2017, a significant proportion of the urban population in the EU-28 was still exposed to concentrations of certain air pollutants that were above EU limit or target values. The numbers of people exposed were even higher in relation to the more stringent World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guideline values set for the protection of human health.
For fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ), 6-8 % of the urban population were exposed to concentrations in excess of the EU limit value, while 74-81 % were exposed to concentrations above the WHO guideline value.
For particulate matter (PM 10 ), the respective exposure estimates were 13-19 % for the EU limit value and 42-52 % for the WHO guideline value.
For ozone (O 3 ), estimates were 12-29 % for the EU target value and 95-98 % for the WHO guideline value.
For nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), estimates were 7-8 % in both cases (EU limit value and WHO guideline value).
The annual EU limit value for nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) — one of the main air quality pollutants of concern, which is typically associated with vehicle emissions — was widely exceeded across Europe in 2016. Some 88 % o f these exceedances occurred at roadside monitoring locations.
The EU limit values for the two categories of particulate matter (PM 10 and PM 2.5 ) were also widely exceeded. For PM 2.5 , approximately the same percentage of exceedances were recorded at traffic stations and at background stations. For PM 10 , exceedances were recorded at a greater percentage of background stations than at traffic stations. This indicates the importance of other emission sources for these pollutants, such as commercial and institutional buildings, household heating, etc.
Between 1990 and 2016, the transport sector significantly reduced emissions of the following air pollutants: carbon monoxide (CO) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) (both by around 86%), sulphur oxides (SO x ) (63 %) and nitrogen oxides (NO x ) (41 %). Since, 2000 a reduction in particulate matter emissions (40 % for PM 2.5 and 34 % for PM 10 ) has occurred.
Emission reductions from road transport have been lower than originally anticipated over the last two decades. This is partly because transport has grown more than expected and partly because, for certain pollutants, growth in diesel vehicles (which produce higher NO x and PM emissions than petrol-fulled vehicles) has been greater than expected. Furthermore, it is widely accepted that 'real-world emissions' of NO x , particularly from diesel passenger cars and vans, generally exceed the permitted European emission (Euro) standards, which define the acceptable limits for exhaust emissions of new vehicles sold in the EU Member States.
Emissions of all pollutants decreased in 2016 compared with the previous year. NO x emissions decreased by 0.2 % and those of CO by 3 %, while emissions of SO x increased by 12 %, and those of PM 10 and PM 2.5 both increased by 2 %. The latest data show that non-exhaust emissions of primary PM 10 and PM 2.5 , such as from tyre- and brake-wear, make up 60 % and 42 % of total road transport emissions of these pollutants, respectively.
All transport modes have reduced their emissions of CO, NH 3 , NMVOCs, SO x and NOx since 1990, except for international aviation and shipping, whose NO x emissions have increased.
There was no discernible trend in European ozone concentrations between 2003 and 2012, in terms of the annual mean of the daily maximum eight hour average measured at any type of station.
It is difficult to attribute observed ozone exceedences, or changes therein, to individual causes such as climate change.
Future climate change is expected to increase ozone concentrations, but this increase should not exceed 5 µg/m 3 by the middle of the century and would therefore likely be outweighed by reductions in ozone levels due to planned future emissions reductions.
End of the century projections for the effects of climate change involve an increase of up to 8 µg/m 3 in ozone concentrations .
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