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Deals with the potential impacts in Europe of the enhanced greenhouse effect caused by a rise in CO2 levels in the atmosphere, which is already 50% more than in pre-industrial times. The chapter discusses the causes of the problem, the consequences (in terms of changed climatic patterns, sea level rise, effects on hydrology, threats to ecosystems and land degradation), and the international strategies being used to try to limit temperature rises.
The greenshouse effect
Analyses the problem of stratospheric ozone depletion caused by the release of the chemicals known as chloro- and bromofluorocarbons, used as refrigerants, industrial cleaners, foaming agents and fire extinguishers. Consequences include possible changes in atmospheric circulation and increased UV-B radiation on the Earth's surface which may lead to increased levels of skin cancer, eye cataracts and effects on ecosystems and materials. The measures necessary to minimize ozone depletion are discussed.
Changes in average ozone concentrations in Europe
(WMO)
Calculated atmospheric clorine concentrations
between 1950 and 1990 (RIVM)
Reviews the extent of biological diversity in Europe, and the reasons for its decline on a continent where human influence are particularly pervasive. The chapter outlines a series of goals that should lead to the conservation of biodiversity an the sustainable use of biological resources, and strategies fm achieving these goals, including implementation of the Convention on Biodiversity.
Representative site of natural European ecosystem groups: aggregated total area, and area where management problems and stress. pose potential threat to biodiversity |
Reviews the environmental problems caused by accidents an the attention that has been given to trying to set acceptable risk levels, for both human health and the environment. Risk management is analysed, focusing on the magnitude of the probability that it will occur. The consequences of an accident and the need for industry to assess its own risks and to u integrated safety management systems and audit tools is discussed. Emergency response or contingency plans are discussed in both national and transboundary situations. The chapter concludes with a special section on the causes o nuclear accidents, and strategies for avoiding them.
Combustion of fossil fuels emits sulphur and nitrogen dioxides into the atmosphere where the gases are converted into acids which, after deposition, lead to a series of undesired changes in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The chapter focuses on the adverse chemical and biological effects found in lakes, soils and forests as a result of deposition of acidifying substances in amounts exceeding critical loads. Possibilities for reducing emissions through international agreements are discussed.
Relative comparison of source categories to potential acid
deposition, 1990 (RIVM)
Reviews the complex reactions that occur in the lower atmosphere producing oxidants such as ozone from the main precursors - nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, methane and carbon monoxide. Levels of these oxidants are increasing, and are having adverse effects on human health. They can also affect materials such as paint and plastics, crop and possibly forests. In the northern hemisphere ozone concentrations are expected to keep rising at 1% a year. No limiting goals have yet been set and the actions already undertaken are not thought to be sufficient in Europe.
WHO Air Quality Guidelines for ozone are frequently exceeded in most parts of Europe
there is no chemical in the atmosphere where the difference between actual and toxic levels is as marginal as that for ozone
at ground level, photochemical oxidants including ozone, can cause premature ageing of the lungs, eye, nose and throat irritation, chest discomfort, coughs and headaches
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European water demand, 1950 - 2000 |
The regional distribution of problems concerning European water resource - such as the imbalance of water availability and demand, the destruction of aquatic habitats, and water pollution - is highlighted and discussed in relation to the pressures arising from human activities in the catchment areas. A series of sustainable goals for water resource management has been proposed, along with the means of reaching them. Particular attention is devoted to the necessity of international cooperation for management of transboundary rivers.
This chapter focuses on the two most important causes of forest degradation across Europe: air pollution, which seriously threatens the sustainability of forest resources in Central, Eastern and, to a lesser extent, Northern Europe; al fire, a major concern in Southern Europe. The analysis of the, damage is derived from large-scale spatial observations of European-wide surveys. However, they do not readily permit cause-effect relationships to be identified. Detailed monitoring could improve understanding. For fires, causes are often related to socioeconomic factors which render the control o the causes complex since they often indicate conflicts and tensions in the overall system of land management.
Average annual number of forest fires 1989-91 (Ministerial
Conference of Helsinki)
Highlights the importance of coastal zones as a buffer between the
land and the sea, and examines how human activities creating physical
modifications of the coastline and emissions of contaminants have led
to the deterioration of habitats and water quality. In order to
alleviate the serious environmental problems found in many coastal
areas, a strategy for integrated coastal zone management has been
proposed. This strategy takes into account the importance of coasts for
human well-being and, at the same time, provides the habitats that
plants and animals require.
Analyses the increasingly severe problem of waste disposal and processing caused by steady increases in both the quantity of wastes and in their toxic component. Despite increased emphasis on waste prevention and recycling, most European waste is disposed of by landfill and incineration. Waste control options are discussed, pointing out that in spite of progress achieved most waste still escapes control or avoids strict regulations by transfrontier movement across European countries or to developing ones. Strategies to minimize waste generation and ensure safe management are seen as crucial to move towards sustainable patterns of production and consumption.
Waste disposal costs (in $/tonne)
Urban areas in Europe show increasing signs of environmental stress, notably in the form of poor air quality, excessive noise and traffic congestion. On the other hand cities absorb increasing amounts of resources and produce increasing amounts of emissions and waste. This chapter analyses the causes of urban stress and their link to the rapid changes in urban lifestyles and patterns of urban development which have occurred in the last few decades. A series of goals and means to achieve sustainable urban patterns in Europe are discussed including: improved urban planning; integrated transport management; efficient use of water, energy and materials; the setting of new standards and improvement of information.
Few environmental problems in Europe cannot be traced back to some form of excessive chemical loading, and this chapter reviews the problems this causes and the ways of reducing the danger. The goal is to reduce levels of chemicals in the environment to a target, low-risk level where only negligible harmful effects occur to both the population and the environment. The EU has adopted a far-reaching programme designed to reduce risks from chemicals in the environment.
For references, please go to https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-827-5122-8/page014.html or scan the QR code.
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