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Indicator Assessment
The amount of high level nuclear waste from nuclear electricity production continues to accumulate. In 2009, 34,824 tonnes of heavy metals contained in high level nuclear waste was in storage, up 4.7% since 2008. The annual quantity of spent fuel was approximately 1,828 tonnes of heavy metals in 2009. However, there is a decreasing trend in the annual quantity of spent fuel arisings since 1990. On the other hand, the amount of electricity produced from nuclear power has increased by 12.5% over the period 1990 to 2009 (see ENER27). This decoupling between electricity production and generation of radioactive waste can be explained by the fact that fuel rods are replaced gradually as well as by improvements in fuel burnup and plant efficiency[1].
[1] Energy efficiency is calculated using an efficiney coefficient of 33% for all reactors (the efficiency of a particular reactor type – CANDU) since all reactors types are slightly different. However overtime there is a trend towards more efficient reactors in Europe, such as those with breeder reactors/fuel enrichment. However, once a reactor is built, the efficiency assumed is fixed at 33%.
Availability improvements in nuclear power plants in Europe
Note: Last three years Capability Factor over 2008-2010. The indicator shows the ratio of the available energy generation over a given time period to the reference energy generation over the same time period, expressed as a percentage. Both of these energy generation terms are determined relative to reference ambient conditions. The reference energy generation is the energy that could be produced if the unit were operated continuously at full power under reference ambient conditions. The available energy generation is the energy that could have been produced under reference ambient conditions considering only limitations within control of plant management, i.e. plant equipment and personnel performance, and work control.
IAEA (2009) Power Reactor Information System (PRIS); August 2009 http://www.iaea.or.at/programmes/a2/
Numbers of Nuclear Fuel Cycle Facilities operational in 2011
Note: Reprocessing is an important part of the fuel cycle within the European nuclear fuel industry, as illustrated by the share of European reprocessing facilities to the global total number of facilities. Europe imports most of the uranium consumed by its nuclear power plants as ore, having very little mining production in the region itself
Stored total amount of high level waste (in tonnes heavy metals)
Historic series in annual spent fuel arisings (tonnes heavy metals)
Note: The following table refers to nuclear waste: it presents annual spent fuel arisings in nuclear power plants of OECD countries. The data are expressed in tonnes of heavy metal, and include projections and estimates up to the year 2010. Spent fuel arisings are one part of the radioactive waste generated at various stages of the nuclear fuel cycle (uranium mining and milling, fuel enrichment, reactor operation, spent fuel reprocessing). Radioactive waste also arises from decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear facilities, and from other activities using isotopes, such as scientific research and medical activities. The impact of nuclear waste on humans and the environment depends on the level of radioactivity and on the conditions under which the waste is handled, treated, stored and disposed of. While reading this table it should be noted that these data do not represent all radioactive waste generated, and that amounts of spent fuel arisings depend on the share of nuclear electricity in the energy supply and on the nuclear plant technologies adopted.
OECD (2007) OECD environmental data compendium, part 1, chapter 8; April 2007. Home -> Environmental Indicators -> Modelling and Outlooks -> OECD Environmental Data Compendium http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data-providers-and-partners/oecd
IAEA (2003) K. Fukuda, W. Danker, J.S. Lee, A. Bonne, M.J. Crijns; IAEA Overview of global spent fuel storage; Vienna : IAEA, Department of Nuclear Energy, 2003
NEA (2007) Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA); Nuclear Energy Data : 2007 Edition = Données sur l' énergie nucléaire; Paris, France : OECD, 2007
NEA (2008) Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA); Nuclear Energy Data : 2008 Edition = Données sur l' énergie nucléaire; Paris, France : OECD, 2008
NEA (2009) Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA); Nuclear Energy Data : 2009 Edition = Données sur l' énergie nucléaire; Paris, France : OECD, 2009
NEA (2010) Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA); Nuclear Energy Data : 2010 Edition = Données sur l' énergie nucléaire; Paris, France : OECD, 2010
EU Electricity production from nuclear (percentages relative to 1990 level)
Note: EU Electricity production from nuclear (percentages relative to 1990 level). Spent fuels arisings: Data for Bulgaria is not included due to a lack of information. No 2008 and 2009 data available for Lithuania, Romania, Slovenia and Sweden, so 2007 data rolled. Lithuania closed its last nuclear reactor at the end of 2009.
OECD (2007) OECD environmental data compendium, part 1, chapter 8; April 2007 http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/60/46/38106824.xls
IAEA (2003) K. Fukuda, W. Danker, J.S. Lee, A. Bonne, M.J. Crijns; IAEA Overview of global spent fuel storage; Vienna : IAEA, Department of Nuclear Energy, 2003
NEA (2007) Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA); Nuclear Energy Data : 2007 Edition = Données sur l' énergie nucléaire; Paris, France : OECD, 2007
NEA (2008) Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA); Nuclear Energy Data : 2008 Edition = Données sur l' énergie nucléaire; Paris, France : OECD, 2008
NEA (2009) Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA); Nuclear Energy Data : 2009 Edition = Données sur l' énergie nucléaire; Paris, France : OECD, 2009
[1] The information refers to the quantity of heavy metals in nuclear fuel, which make up approximately 85% of the uranium fuel and 60% - 70% of the aggregation of fuel and fuel casing (fuel assembly).
Indicative specifications for different reactor types
Note: Indicative specifications for different reactor types. For example, as indicated by the given burnup rate, a Candu reactor will produce more spent fuel per kWhe than light water reactors (LWR).
IEE (2005) Nuclear reactor Types : an Environment & Energy FactFile; The Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE); London, UK : The Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE), 2005
Spent nuclear fuel reprocessing
The amount of spent fuel arising in Europe is not equivalent to the amount of high level waste that is ultimately stored, since part of this spent fuel is reprocessed. Former Eastern bloc member states appear to have exported part of their produced spent fuel to Russia, with Bulgaria appearing to have exported spent fuel as late as 2006 (Bellona, 2008).
Reprocessing is an important part of the fuel cycle within the European nuclear fuel industry, as illustrated by the share of EEA32 reprocessing facilities, which is equal to the number in the rest of the world (see Figure 5). Europe imports most of the uranium consumed by its nuclear power plants as ore, having very little mining production in the region itself. This means that the environmental and human health impacts associated with uranium mining play a much lesser role in the European context. Imported ore is processed into fuel in Europe and part of the produced fuel is exported to the USA. While in other parts of the world the fuel is stored after consumption, in Europe a significant portion of the spent fuel is reprocessed, hence reducing the amount of high level waste that requires final disposal. For more technical details on spent fuel reprocessing see (EdF, 2007), (Harvard, 2003) and (MIT, 2003) and the International Atomic Energy Agency. Spent fuel from France, Japan, Netherlands, and Belgium is reprocessed in La Hague in Normandy. This plant has the capacity to reprocess 1700 tonnes of fuel per year in its UP2 and UP3 facilities. The recycling rate is high, extracting 99.9% of the plutonium and uranium, and leaving just 3% of used material as high level wastes. By 2009, some 27,000 tonnes of fuel from LWRs had been recycled at LA Hague (WNA 2011). Most reprocessed uranium (RepU) is converted and stored in the interim period for eventual re-enrichment and/or exported to Russia (about 500tU per year is sent to Seversk) (WNA 2011).
High level nuclear waste storage
Spent nuclear fuel is the most highly radioactive waste. It decays rapidly at first, i.e. after 40 years the level of radioactivity has typically dropped to 1/1000th of the initial value. But it takes around 1000 years to drop to the level of the original uranium ore which was needed to produce that quantity of spent fuel (WNA, 2003). The potential impact of high level nuclear waste on humans and the environment depends on the level of radioactivity and on the conditions under which the waste is managed. The majority of member states currently store spent fuel and other high level radioactive wastes in above ground storage facilities. However, deep geological disposal in an underground repository is currently favoured as a long-term option by many countries. Finland, in particular, has advanced plans for deep geological storage sites for used fuel on Olkiluoto Island (WNA 2011). Lower level radioactive wastes are commonly stored in surface disposal sites.
Cost estimates on final disposal (million euros)
Note: Estimated operational costs range from €ct1,2/kWhe to €2,0/kWhe, including dismantling and waste disposal. Costs for insurance may make up 30% of total operational costs. The table shows the cost estimates for final disposal of spent fuel in Finland (5,600 tonnes HM).
Kukkola (2005) T. Kukkola, T. Saanio; Cost Estimate of Olkiluoto Disposal Facility for Spent Nuclear Fuel; March 2005
Nuclear power is expensive to build, but cheap to operate and in most parts of the world it is competitive with both gas and coal plants. Costs of nuclear power production are a subject of intense discussion and estimates range from very low costs of e.g. 2 €ct/kWhe to more than 10 €ct/kWhe (ECN, 2007). Production cost estimates for the intended EPR (European Pressurised Reactor) power plants in France amount to €ct 4,6/kWhe. Differences between estimated production costs are mainly due to differences in the applied depreciation methodology, depreciation period and interest rates. For investment costs a fairly narrow range is mentioned. Dismantling costs are covered by a fund created from sales during the operational lifetime of the plant.
Estimated operational costs range from €ct1,2/kWhe to €2,0/kWhe, including dismantling and waste disposal. Costs for insurance may make up 30% of total operational costs. Cost estimates for final disposal of spent fuel in Finland (5,600 tonnes HM) are estimated, see figure 8.
Nuclear power being a base load power production technology competes primarily with coal and large scale hydropower. Compared to coal a new Nuclear Power Plant requires approximately twice the investment for the same capacity, excluding construction interests. Operational costs for a new coal power plant amount to approximately €ct 2/kWhe, including fuel costs (€ 2/GJ) (CE, 2006). In Europe, the nuclear industry still benefits from state subsidies but accurate, transparent information on the level of these subsidies is not available. A new report published by Earth Track[1] in February 2011 takes a critical view on the continuous dependency of the nuclear power sector on subsidies. The report considers the following as the main subsidies: the shift of construction and operating costs and operating risks from investors to taxpayers and ratepayers, transferring a range of risks ranging from cost overruns and defaults to accidents as well as nuclear waste management on to the taxpayer.
[1] http://earthtrack.net/files/uploaded_files/nuclear%20subsidies_report.pdf
The indicator measures spent nuclear fuel arising from nuclear electricity production in the Member States that had nuclear powered electricity production capacity between 1990 and 2009 (data for Bulgaria missing). It provides an indication of the situation of radioactive waste accumulation and storage.
Original measurement units:
Spent fuel: tonnes of heavy metal (tHM)
Nuclear electricity generation: terawatt hours (TWh)
According to the World Energy Council http://www.worldenergy.org nuclear waste falls into the following four broad categories:
HLW accounts for 10% by volume of radioactive waste generated and contains about 99% of the total radioactivity. This includes fission products and spent fuel.
Spent fuel: tonnes of heavy metal (tHM)
Nuclear electricity generation: terawatt hours (TWh)
Decisions concerning the use of nuclear energy are up to Member States: the principle of subsidiary grants member states autonomy in deciding their energy mix.
Public concern about environmental and safety considerations has led to plans to phase out nuclear power in certain Member States (such as Germany, Spain, Sweden and Belgium), with some others either declaring or considering moratoria on the building of new nuclear plants. On 30th May 2011, the German government decided to stand by the previous government’s plans to close all reactors by 2022 (WNA 2011). Italy completely phased-out nuclear power following a referendum in 1987. In Sweden the Barseback nuclear power plant closed in 2005. Sweden is the only country to have a tax discriminating against nuclear power.
On the other hand, some Member States are currently discussing the construction of new nuclear capacity. In Finland (Olikiluoto-3) and France (Flamanville-3), the process of building additional capacity, based on new nuclear designs such as the European Pressurised Water Reactor (EPR), is ongoing. Both are planned to start-up in 2012. Furthermore, in Romania, the Cernavoda 2 reactor was completed in 2007. Meanwhile, several countries, like the Netherlands, Belgium and Hungary have decided to extend the life-time of existing NPPs. Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Poland agreed in 2007 on the construction of a NPP (Visaginas) in Lithuania. The Advanced Boiling Water Reactor is expected to operate from 2020. Bulgaria also plans to build two new reactors (Belene 1 and 2) and there has been strong governmental support for nuclear. The most up to date information on NPPs can be found in the Power Reactor Information System (PRIS) of the IAEA (IAEA, 2009).
On June 25th 2009 the European Council adopted Directive for setting up a Community framework for nuclear safety (COM(2008) 790 final). The Directive is a major step for achieving a common legal framework and a strong safety culture in Europe.
The Euratom Treaty helps to pool knowledge, infrastructure and funding of nuclear energy. It ensures the security of atomic energy supply within the framework of a centralised monitoring system.
Provides binding legal force to the main international nuclear safety standards (IAEA Safety Fundamentals and the Convention on Nuclear Safety). The Directive also reinforces the independence and resources of the national competent regulatory authorities.
National responsibility of Member States for the nuclear safety of nuclear installations is the fundamental principle on which nuclear safety regulation has been developed at the international level, as endorsed by the Convention on Nuclear Safety. That principle of national responsibility, as well as the principle of prime responsibility of the licence holder for the nuclear safety of a nuclear installation under the supervision of its national competent regulatory authority, should be enhanced and the role and independence of the competent regulatory authorities should be reinforced by this Directive.
States the fundamental safety objective as being to protect people and the environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation. Ten safety principles are stated and their intent and purpose are briefly explained. The safety objective and the ten safety principles provide the grounds for establishing requirements and measures for the protection of people and the environment against radiation risks, and for the safety of facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks.
Achieve and maintain a high level of nuclear safety worldwide through the enhancement of national measures and international co-operation including, where appropriate, safety-related technical co-operation; to establish and maintain effective defences in nuclear installations against potential radiological hazards in order to protect individuals, society and the environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation from such installations; to prevent accidents with radiological consequences and to mitigate such consequences should they occur.
This will support three Generation IV reactors as part of a wider programme to promote low-carbon technologies. Of particular focus is the Astrid sodium-cooled fast reactor (France), the allegro gas-cooled fast reactor (central and eastern Europe) and the lead-cooled fast reactor (Belgium), and additional nuclear applications include hydrogen production, desalination plants and industrial heat.
No targets have been specified
Average annual rate of growth calculated using: [(last year / base year) ^ (1 / number of years) - 1]*100
No methodology for gap filling has been specified. Probably this info has been added together with indicator calculation.
No methodology references available.
For the production of electricity, data have traditionally been compiled by Eurostat through the annual Joint Questionnaires (although there is no separate questionnaire for nuclear energy), shared by Eurostat and the International Energy Agency, following a well-established and harmonised methodology. This year for the first time greater disaggregation is available in Eurostat and we have aggregated the product codes (107030, 31, 32, and 33) to calculate gross electricity generation from nuclear power (former product code 107003). The primary energy from nuclear is calculated based on the electricity generation from nuclear with a 33.3 % efficiency rate. Methodological information on the annual Joint Questionnaires and data compilation can be found on Eurostat's website in the section on metadata on energy statistics http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/metadata, also see information related to the Energy Statistics Regulation from the same link.
Data on spent fuel arisings have been compiled by the OECD using data from member Governments. This is a consistent ongoing process that is updated annually. However, no information is available for Bulgaria. During 2008 and 2009, no data was available for Lithuania, Romania, Slovenia and Sweden, which decreases the overall accuracy of the indicator. The use of spent fuel arisings as a proxy for overall radioactive waste is itself slightly uncertain because of the various inconsistencies in classification of radioactive waste between Member States, although it does provide a ‘reliable representation of the production of radioactive waste situation and its evolution over time’ (OECD, 1993).
No uncertainty has been specified
For references, please go to https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/nuclear-energy-and-waste-production/nuclear-energy-and-waste-production-3 or scan the QR code.
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