Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe COM(2011) 571

Policy Document
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Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe.  COM(2011) 571  

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Land recycling and densification This indicator addresses the use of urban land for further urban development, whether that urban land is currently in use or not. The indicator comprises two concepts of urban development: land recycling and land densification. Land recycling is defined as the reuse of abandoned, vacant or underused land for redevelopment. It includes ‘grey recycling’ and ‘green recycling’. Grey recycling is when ‘grey’ urban objects, such as buildings or transport infrastructures, are built under redevelopment. Green recycling is when ‘green’ urban objects, such as green urban areas or sport facilities, are built. Land densification is defined as the land development that takes place within existing communities, making maximum use of the existing infrastructure instead of building on previously undeveloped land. The indicator examines land recycling relative to total land consumption. Total land consumption is understood as all the land use processes occurring on or ending up in developed land, i.e. urban redevelopment, urban and infrastructure sprawl, and any change in previously developed land. Land recycling includes both the densification and the recycling phenomena. Therefore, land recycling is understood broadly and includes three components: land densification, grey land recycling and green land recycling.
Food consumption — animal based protein This indicator shows consumption of protein from selected meat, dairy, fish and seafood products in the EU-28.  Figure 1 shows the development of per capita protein consumption from animal-based products, and sub-categories of meat, fish and seafood, eggs, and dairy products (excl. butter). Further sub-categories for meat are added. Data are indexed to the year 2000 (2000=100). Figure 2 shows the change in consumption of protein from selected main categories of meat, dairy, fish and seafood between 2000 and the most recent data point.  The data were extracted from the FAO balance sheets. The indicator is defined as the supply of these products to the final consumer. This provides a figure for 'food', which represents the amount of each product that reaches the consumer. The amount of food actually eaten will be lower than the quantity shown in the food balance sheet because of wastage of edible food in households during storage, preparation and cooking, unused food leftovers and food fed to domestic animals and pets. The indicator shows protein consumption from animal based products instead of consumption of these products in weight because weight-based numbers are dominated by milk due to its high water content. Using protein in the indicator is also recommended in the European Commission Staff Working Document on the Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe (EC, 2011) for 'making food consumption healthier and more sustainable'.
Imperviousness and imperviousness change The imperviousness indicator is defined as the yearly average imperviousness change between two reference years, as measured by imperviousness change products. The change is aggregated for a certain reference unit and expressed as relative to the size of that unit (as a percentage). The imperviousness change value for a 100 m raster cell is based on 100 m imperviousness change products. The default reference unit is the country, but the indicator can be aggregated based on different spatial units. For example, for a certain country, a n imperviousness indicator value of 0.2 %, means that on average, an additional 0.2 % of this country's area has been sealed annually during the period between the two reference years in question. If above a certain rate of increase (threshold values) , this value can be used as a warning sign. The aggregation of imperviousness values to reference units is performed using the LEAC CUBE method.
Consumption of meat, dairy, fish and seafood This indicator shows consumption of selected meat, dairy, fish and seafood products by weight in the EU-28. Consumption is shown in both kg/capita/year (Figure 1) and as an index of the per capita amount consumed (Figure 2). Figure 1 shows the change in consumption of meat, dairy, fish and seafood between 1995 and the most recent data point. Meat is disaggregated into bovine meat, pig meat, poultry, mutton and goat meat, and other meat. Dairy is divided into whole milk, cream, cheese and butter. Fish and seafood consumption is disaggregated into demersal fish, pelagic fish, freshwater fish, and other fish and seafood. A separate tab shows the consumption  by protein content. Figure 2 shows the development of per capita consumption of bovine meat, pig and poultry meat, total meat, and aggregated fish and seafood, together with a single value for milk that represents all dairy products excluding butter. Figure 2 presents the development of the consumption of these products as an index to the reference year (1995). Food consumption is drawn from the FAO statistics database. This provides a figure for 'food', which represents the amount of each product that reaches the consumer. The amount of food actually eaten will be lower than the quantity shown in the food balance sheet due to wastage of edible food in households during storage, preparation and cooking, unused food leftovers and food fed to domestic animals and pets. 
Waste recycling This indicator shows trends in recycling rates for several waste types — municipal waste, packaging waste, waste excluding major mineral wastes and WEEE — at an aggregated European level (EU-28 and other European countries for which data were available). For municipal waste and packaging waste, data are also presented at country level together with related targets for packaging waste. Municipal and packaging waste recycling rates refer to waste recycled as a proportion of waste generated. Recycling rates for waste excluding major mineral wastes refer to waste recycled as a proportion of waste treated. WEEE recycling rates refer to waste recycled as a proportion of the average quantity of electrical and electronic equipment put on the market in the previous 3 years. Higher recycling rates indicate a more positive development towards using waste as a resource and a circular economy.
Use of freshwater resources The WEI+ provides a measure of the total water use as a percentage of the renewable freshwater resources for a given territory and time scale. The WEI+ is an advanced and geo-referenced implementation of the WEI. It quantifies how much water is monthly or seasonally abstracted and how much water is returned after use to the environment via basins. The difference between water abstraction and return is regarded as water use.
Imperviousness and imperviousness change The imperviousness indicator is defined as the yearly average imperviousness change between two reference years, as measured by imperviousness change products. The change is aggregated for a certain reference unit, and expressed and relative to the size of said unit (as a percentage). The imperviousness change value for a 100 m raster cell is based on 100 m imperviousness change products, corresponding to the difference in imperviousness status values (e.g. IMD2009-IMD2006). The default reference unit is the country, but the indicator can be aggregated based on different spatial units. For example, for a certain country, a n imperviousness indicator value of 0.2 %, means that an additional 0.2 % of this country's area has been sealed annually during the period between the two reference years in question. If above a certain rate of increase (threshold values) , this value can be used as a warning sign. The aggregation of imperviousness values to reference units is performed using the LEAC CUBE method.
Emission intensity of manufacturing industries in Europe This indicator is used to illustrate the emission intensity of manufacturing industries expressed as the amount of pollutant discharged in water per unit of production of the manufacturing industries (expressed as one million Euro gross value added). Furthermore, the indicator shows a decoupling of economic growth (GVA) from  environmental impact (emission of pollutants). The decoupling indicator displays the percentage change in the emission of pollutants from manufacturing against the change in the gross value added (GVA) of the manufacturing industry over the same period of time (2004-2010). Absolute decoupling occurs when the environmentally relevant variable is stable or decreasing, while the economic driving force is growing. Relative decoupling occurs when the growth rate of the emission is positive, but less than the growth rate of GVA. In line with the statistical classification of economic activities in the European Community (NACE Rev. 2 Section C  (divisions 10-33)) the following manufacturing industries are considered: Division 10: Manufacture of food products Division 11: Manufacture of beverages Division 12: Manufacture of tobacco products Division 13: Manufacture of textiles Division 14: Manufacture of wearing apparel Division 15: Manufacture of leather and related products Division 16: Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and cork, except furniture; manufacture of articles of straw and plaiting materials Division 17: Manufacture of paper and paper products Division 18: Printing and reproduction of recorded media Division 19: Manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products Division 20: Manufacture of chemicals, chemical products Division 21: Manufacture of basic pharmaceutical products and pharmaceutical preparations Division 22: Manufacture of rubber and plastic products Division 23: Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products Division 24: Manufacture of basic metals Division 25: Manufacture of fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment Division 26: Manufacture of computer, electronic and optical products Division 27: Manufacture of electrical equipment Division 28: Manufacture of machinery and equipment not elsewhere classified Division 29: Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers Division 30: Manufacture of other transport equipment Division 31: Manufacture of furniture Division 32: Other manufacturing Division 33: Repair and installation of machinery and equipment The following divisions from NACE Rev. 2 Section C were considered: Food industry: division 10, 11 Chemical industry: division 20, groups 20.1-20.6 Metal industry:division 24, 25    
Household expenditure on consumption categories with differing environmental pressure intensities This indicator shows trends in total household consumption expenditure of Europeans as characterised by the Classification of Individual Consumption by Purpose (CIOCOP). COICOP is a nomenclature developed by the United Nations Statistics Division and subsequently adopted by Eurostat to classify and analyse individual consumption expenditures incurred by households, non-profit institutions serving households and general government according to their purpose. Trends at the single digit disaggregation level demonstrate how patterns of consumption across 12 expenditure categories in Europe are changing. Figure 1, which compares the share of expenditure across the COICOP categories in two years, uses current prices, while figure 2, which shows the trends in expenditure in the 12 expenditure categories, is presented in chain linked volumes. Figures 3-6 show environmental pressures per Euro of spending for each of the 12 household consumption categories for four environmental pressure categories. This enables expenditure trends in the first two figures to be interpreted with respect to potential changes in environmental pressures caused by household consumption.
Waste generation This indicator consists of three figures aimed entirely on waste generation excluding major mineral wastes, although in Figure 1 is also generation of total waste shown. Total waste consists about 65 % of mineral wastes, which represent a separate waste management sector with a large potential for material use. To take into account also other significant sources of waste production, in this indicator we focus only on waste excluding major mineral wastes. This exclusion enhances the quality of the indicator as the uncertainty over major mineral waste data and associated statistics (in particular construction and mining) is rather high. Major mineral wastes excluded from the indicator are according to Eurostat and European Waste Classification for statistical purposes (EWC-Stat, version 4): mineral construction and demolition waste (EWC-Stat 12.1), other mineral waste (12.2, 12.3, 12.5), soils (12.6) and dredging spoils (12.7). However, the indicator includes combustion wastes (EWC-Stat 12.4) and mineral wastes from waste treatment and stabilized wastes (EWC-Stat 13). Figure 1 shows indexed values of waste production, population and gross domestic product (GDP) with year 2010 as a reference year (2010=100 %). Production phase shows generation of total waste and waste excluding major mineral wastes in absolute terms. GDP was chosen as a basic indicator of the economic growth as it expresses the total value of goods and services produced in the country (the components of GDP include personal consumption expenditures plus business investment plus government spending plus (exports minus imports)).  Population expressed as average population is important demographic indicator which enables to gain perception about development in number of possible consumers and waste producers. Figure 2 shows waste generation, excluding major mineral wastes, by specific NACE activities including a separate category for waste generation in households and their share to total waste generation. Data presented in form of ring diagram are displayed as a comparison of the reference (2010) and last available year. Figure 3 shows waste generation, excluding major mineral wastes, per capita by European countries. Data presented in form of bar chart are displayed as a comparison of the reference (2010) and last available year.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - Outlook from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) GDP can be calculated in three ways, providing different perspectives on the balance of economic activity. Essentially these three approaches consist of adding up the total value of incomes, spending or production in a country or region during a period of time. More formally they can be defined as follows (OECD, 2015b): the ‘income approach’ calculates GDP based on the sum of primary incomes distributed by resident producer unit; the ‘expenditure approach’ calculates GDP based on the sum of the final uses of goods and services (all uses except intermediate consumption) measured in purchasers' prices, less the value of imports of goods and services; the ‘output approach’ calculates GDP as the sum of the gross values added of all resident institutional units engaged in production (plus any taxes, and minus any subsidies, on products not included in the value of their outputs). Applying these approaches using current price data will deliver an estimate of nominal GDP. Nominal GDP data are often adjusted to facilitate meaningful comparisons of economic output between different time periods and between different countries. For example, nominal GDP is adjusted to remove the effects of price inflation in order to provide a more realistic measure of changes in the volume of economic production. Constant price estimates of GDP are obtained by calculating the value of production in different periods using the price levels from a single base period. Similarly, nominal GDP growth is converted into real GDP growth using the ‘GDP deflator’ (OECD, 2015a). Price differences between countries can likewise make it hard to compare the volume of national production using nominal price data at market exchange rates. Purchasing power parity (PPP) estimates of GDP compensate for differences in prices between countries to provide a better comparison of the volume of goods and services produced in different countries or regions. They thereby support better comparisons of living standards (OECD, 2015c). The data shown in this indicator are expressed in 2005 US dollars in PPP terms. References OECD, 2015a: 'OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Gross domestic product (GDP) – constant prices Definition' ( http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=1164 ) accessed 19 Jan 2015. OECD, 2015b: 'OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Gross domestic product (GDP) Definition' ( http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=1163 ) accessed 19 Jan 2015. OECD, 2015c: 'OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Purchasing power parities (PPPs) – OECD Definition' ( http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=2205 ) accessed 19 Jan 2015.
Emission intensity of manufacturing industries in Europe The indicator is used to illustrate emission intensity of manufacturing industries expressed as amount of pollutant discharged in water per unit of production of manufacturing industries (expressed as one million Euro gross value added). Furthermore, indicator shows decoupling of economic growth (GVA) from the environmental impact (emission of pollutants).Decoupling indicator displays the percentage of change in emission of pollutants from manufacturing plotted together with the change in the gross value added (GVA) of the manufacturing industry over the same period of time (between 2004-2010). Absolute decoupling occurs when the environmentally relevant variable is stable or decreasing while the economic driving force is growing. Relative decoupling occurs when the growth rate of the emission is positive, but less than the growth rate of the GVA. In line with Statistical classification of economic activities in the European Community NACE Rev. 2 Section C  (divisions 10-33) the following industries : are considered in the „manufacturing“:” Division 10: Manufacture of food products Division 11: Manufacture of beverages Division 12: Manufacture of tobacco products Division 13: Manufacture of textiles Division 14: Manufacture of wearing apparel Division 15: Manufacture of leather and related products Division 16: Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and cork, except furniture; manu- facture of articles of straw and plaiting materials Division 17: Manufacture of paper and paper products Division 18: Printing and reproduction of recorded media Division 19: Manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products Division 20: Manufacture of chemicals, chemical products Division 21: Manufacture of basic pharmaceutical products and pharmaceutical preparations Division 22: Manufacture of rubber and plastic products Division 23: Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products Division 24: Manufacture of basic metals Division 25: Manufacture of fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment Division 26: Manufacture of computer, electronic and optical products Division 27: Manufacture of electrical equipment Division 28: Manufacture of machineryand equipment n.e.c. Division 29: Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers Division 30: Manufacture of other transport equipment Division 31: Manufacture of furniture Division 32: Other manufacturing Division 33: Repair and installation of machinery and equipment   The following divisions from NACE Rev. 2 Section C were considered for: Food industry: division 10, 11 Chemical industry: division 20, groups 20.1-20.6 Metal industry:division 24, 25    
Emission intensity of the domestic sector in Europe This indicator is used to illustrate the emission intensity of the domestic sector (household plus services), expressed as the amount of discharged pollutant from wastewater treatment/or discharged without treatment per inhabitant per year. Furthermore, the indicator shows a decoupling of the emission of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and population growth across Europe. The values of change (increase/or decrease) in discharged load between 1990 and 2009 (expressed in percentages, where values in 1990 = 100%) are plotted against the values of change in population growth. Absolute decoupling occurs when the environmentally relevant variable is stable or decreasing while the driving force is growing. Relative decoupling occurs when the growth rate of the emission is positive, but less than the population growth rate.
Emission intensity of agriculture in Europe The indicator is used to illustrate decoupling of economic growth (Gross Value Added-GVA) from the environmental impact (nutrient losses).The indicator displays the percentage of change in emission of nutrients from agriculture  (expressed as nutrient balance) plotted together with the change in the gross value added (GVA) of the agriculture industry over the same period of time (between 2000-2011). Absolute decoupling occurs when the environmentally relevant variable is stable or decreasing while the economic driving force is growing. Relative decoupling occurs when the growth rate of the emission is positive, but less than the growth rate of the GVA. Furthermore, the indicator illustrates emission intensity of the agriculture sector expressed as the amount of nutrient balance in agriculture per unit of production of the agriculture sector (expressed as one million Euro of gross value added). The indicator illustrates both emission intensity based on total GVA (which includes subsidies) and emission intensity based on GVA, excluding subsidies.
Number of organisations with registered environmental management systems according to EMAS and ISO 14001 The indicator presents the total number of organisations and number of sites registered under the EU environmental management system (EMS) certification scheme, EMAS (Figure 1), and the number of organisations certified according to the international standard for EMS, ISO14001 (Figure 2), year by year.
Household expenditure on consumption categories with differing environmental pressure intensities This indicator shows trends in total household consumption expenditure of Europeans as characterised by the Classification of Individual Consumption by Purpose ( COICOP ).  COICOP is a nomenclature developed by the United Nations Statistics Division and subsequently adopted by Eurostat to classify and analyse individual consumption expenditures incurred by households, non-profit institutions serving households and general government according to their purpose. Trends at the single digit disaggregation level demonstrate how patterns of consumption across 12 expenditure categories in Europe are changing (Figure 1). The indicator also illustrates trends in absolute spending on each of the 12 categories between 1995 and 2010 (Figure 2). Expenditure trends are given in fixed prices. Figures 3-6 show environmental pressures per Euro of spending for each of the 12 household consumption categories for 4 environmental pressure categories. This enables expenditure trends in the first two figures to be interpreted with respect to potential changes in environmental pressures caused by household consumption. (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Glossary:Classification_of_individual_consumption_by_purpose_(COICOP))
Recycling rates for packaging waste fractions and municipal waste This indicator shows recycling rates of packaging waste fractions and municipal waste, and is presented in two figures for the EU-15 and EU-27, respectively. What constitutes packaging waste is defined by Annex I to the Packaging Waste Directive (94/62/EC). Packaging comprises all products used for the containment, protection, handling, delivery and presentation of goods, from the producer to the user or the consumer. 'Non-returnable' items used for the same purposes also constitute packaging. Packaging materials include paper and cardboard, plastic, wood, metals and glass. Municipal waste is waste collected by or on behalf of municipal authorities and disposed of through the waste management system. It mainly comprises household waste but similar wastes from sources such as services, offices and public institutions are included in Eurostat data. Wastes from agriculture and industry are not included. It should be noted that a large part of packaging wastes are reported as municipal waste. The recycling rate is the share of generated waste which undergoes material recovery (i.e. not energy recovery). Figure 1 presents recycling rates for packaging waste fractions (1998-2010) and for municipal waste (1995-2010) for the EU-15. Wood packaging wastes are first included from 2003 due to lack of reporting by a number of countries during earlier years. Figure 2 presents the same variables for the EU-27, but for the years 2004-2010 for packaging waste recycling rates. The underlying data has been reported to Eurostat by EU Member States.
Total recycled quantities for six key material types in the EU27 including exports for recycling (11.1) This indicator shows developments in quantities of six material waste types that are recycled by recycling plants within EU territory plus quantities of EU generated waste for the same six material types that are recycled both within the EU and in the rest of the world. It also illustrates the difference between the two variables – net exports of waste from the EU to the rest of the world – also differentiated by material type The six key waste material types are: Metallic wastes; Glass wastes; Paper and cardboard wastes; Plastic wastes; Wood wastes; and Textile wastes. Data has been reported to Eurostat by member countries.
Generation of non-mineral waste in EU-27 by sector This indicator shows the generation of waste, excluding mineral wastes from households and from key NACE* sectors (according to Rev. 2 categories**) in the EU-27 over time, both in absolute levels and indexed to 2004 levels, together with developments in GDP over the period 2004 to 2008. The indicator distinguishes waste generated by the following sectors: Agriculture, forestry and fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing; Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply; Water supply; sewerage, waste management and remediation activities; Construction; Services (except wholesale of waste and scrap), and Households. The following mineral waste categories have been excluded from the totals for each sector (waste codes according to the EU Waste Statistics Regulation): 11.3 dredging spoils; 12.1 12.2 12.3 & 12.5 mineral wastes excluding combustion wastes, contaminated soils and polluted dredging spoils; and 12.6 contaminated soils and polluted dredging spoils. These mineral wastes have been removed due to the domination of such wastes in total waste, making it difficult to detect changes in other categories, and due to the very different treatment required by such mineral wastes compared to other types of waste. *NACE ’is the acronym used to designate the various statistical classifications of economic activities developed since 1970 in the European Union (EU).’ ( http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/NACE_backgrounds ). **Eurostat, EC (2008).  NACE Rev. 2 – Statistical classification of economic activities in the European Community. Eurostat Methodologies and Working Papers. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-RA-07-015/EN/KS-RA-07-015-EN.PDF
European ecological footprint per capita compared to available biocapacity (2.1) The ecological footprint translates a few of the global pressures caused directly and indirectly by a country’s consumption into direct and virtual land use worldwide. This includes direct land use in the country for urban areas and roads, land used indirectly globally for the production of food, fibre, timber, energy consumed in the country, and finally ‘virtual’ land in the form of average forest that would be required to absorb CO2 emissions from the country’s use of fossil fuels thus avoiding accumulation in the atmosphere. A nation or a region’s footprint can be benchmarked against the area of land, or biocapacity available globally per person, giving a useful indication of the extent to which its consumption is environmentally sustainable. The biocapacity of a given piece of land is a function of its physical area, a factor that takes account of the type of land cover, and a yield factor varying according to local conditions.
Land take This indicator looks at the change in the amount of agricultural, forest and other semi-natural and natural land taken by urban and other artificial land development. It includes areas sealed by construction and urban infrastructure, as well as urban green areas, and sport and leisure facilities. The main drivers of land take are grouped in processes resulting in the extension of: housing, services and recreation; industrial and commercial sites; transport networks and infrastructures; mines, quarries and waste dumpsites; construction sites.
Electricity consumption, energy efficiency and ownership of household appliances This indicator presents  trends in consumption of electricity in households, and in the efficiency and stock of three key appliances in the EU-28. The use of electricity in households for different types of end uses is shown in figure 1, while figure 2 shows energy consumption, average specific energy consumption (efficiency) and total stock of key household appliances, and trends in total electricity consumption for all appliances in the EU28. 
Diversion of waste from landfill This indicator consists of three figures, which show trends in the landfilling of waste at European level (the EU-28 and other European countries for which data were available), and it focuses entirely on waste excluding major mineral wastes. Mineral wastes represent about 65 % of total waste and this exclusion enhances the quality of the indicator, as uncertainties over major mineral waste data and associated statistics (in particular construction and mining waste) are rather high. Major mineral wastes excluded from the indicator are, according to Eurostat and the European Waste Classification for Statistical Purposes (EWC-Stat, version 4), mineral construction and demolition waste (EWC-Stat 12.1), other mineral waste (EWC-Stat 12.2, 12.3 and 12.5), soils (EWC-Stat 12.6) and dredging spoils (EWC-Stat 12.7).  Fig. 1 combines two chart types. The stacked column chart represents the amounts and the proportions of waste deposited in landfill broken down into the most relevant waste categories. The category ‘other waste’ in the graph includes chemical and medical wastes, recyclable wastes, equipment wastes, animal and vegetal wastes, mixed and undifferentiated materials, and common sludges. The line chart, with the scale on the secondary vertical axis, represents landfilling rates. The landfilling rates relate to waste treated because imported waste is also included, which would not be the case if landfilling rates were related to waste generated. Decreasing landfilling rates indicate a positive development towards using waste as a resource and a more circular economy. Fig. 2 shows developments in landfilling rates in European countries in 2006 and 2017. Data are presented in descending order based on 2017 values. The line chart shows the landfill target for 2035 . Fig. 3 shows trends in municipal waste management for the period 2008-2017 and the distribution of specific waste treatment operations.  
Land take The land take indicator address the change in the area of agricultural, forest and other semi-natural land “taken” for urban and other artificial land development (hence the name “Land take”). Land take includes areas sealed by construction and urban infrastructure, as well as urban green areas, and sport and leisure facilities. The main drivers of land take are grouped in processes resulting in the extension of: housing, services and recreation; industrial and commercial sites; transport networks and infrastructures; mines, quarries and waste dumpsites; construction sites. Note: The reported land take change relate to the extension of urban areas and may also include parcels which were not sealed (e.g. urban green areas, sport and leisure facilities). This is, in particular, the case for discontinuous urban fabric, which is considered as a whole. Similarly, monitoring the indicator with satellite images leads to the exclusion of most linear transport infrastructures, which are too narrow to be observed directly.

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