Primary and final energy consumption in Europe - 8th EAP

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Indicator

workflow

Content responsible Head of Group adds a pickup list of EEA Heads of Group that is responsible for the content.

Consultation members emails List of consultation members emails, separated by commas.

Contacto Contact info

Metadata

Temporal coverage This property is read-only and it is automatically extracted from this indicator's data visualizations.

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Geographic coverage This property is read-only and it is automatically extracted from this indicator's data visualizations

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UN SDGs Sustainable Development Goals - Choose max 2 goals

Typology Typology

DPSIR DPSIR (drivers, pressures, state, impact and response model of intervention) is a causal framework for describing the interactions between society and the environment: Human impact on the environment and vice versa because of the interdependence of the components.

Supporting information

Methodology Methodology for indicator calculation and for gap filling. Where relevant, include changes to methodology and subsequent implications for comparability. Also include uncertainties in relation to the indicator calculation and/or to gap filling) if these are considerable.

[{"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "To ensure comparability with energy efficiency targets, this indicator follows the Eurostat methodology for final energy consumption (Europe 2020-2030) [FEC2020-2030] and primary energy consumption (Europe 2020-2030) [PEC2020-2030]."}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": ""}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Primary energy consumption (Europe 2020-2030) = gross inland consumption (all products total) - gross inland consumption (ambient heat (heat pumps)) - final non-energy consumption (all products total)."}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Final energy consumption (Europe 2020-2030)=final energy consumption (all products total)-final energy consumption (ambient heat (heat pumps))+international aviation (all products total)+transformation input blast furnaces (all products total)-transformation output blast furnaces (all products total)+energy sector blast furnaces (solid fossil fuels)+energy sector blast furnaces (manufactured gases)+energy sector blast furnaces (peat and peat products)+energy sector blast furnaces (oil shale and oil sands)+energy sector blast furnaces (oil and petroleum products)+energy sector blast furnaces (Natural gas)."}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Data set used: 'Complete energy balances nrg_bal_c'"}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Codes:"}]}, {"type": "ul", "children": [{"type": "ul", "children": [{"type": "ul", "children": [{"type": "li", "children": [{"text": "FEC2020-2030 Final energy consumption (Europe 2020-2030)/all products"}]}, {"type": "li", "children": [{"text": "PEC2020-2030 Primary energy consumption (Europe 2020-2030)/all products"}]}, {"type": "li", "children": [{"text": "GIC Gross inland consumption/all products"}]}, {"type": "li", "children": [{"text": "NRG_BF_E Energy sector \u2014 blast furnaces \u2014 energy use/all products"}]}, {"type": "li", "children": [{"text": "FC_NE Final non-energy consumption/all products"}]}, {"type": "li", "children": [{"text": "FC_TRA_E Final consumption \u2014 transport sector \u2014 energy use/renewables and biofuels"}]}, {"type": "li", "children": [{"text": "FC_E Final consumption \u2014 energy use/ambient heat"}]}, {"type": "li", "children": [{"text": "PPRD Primary production/ambient heat"}]}]}]}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Details about this methodology are available from Eurostat at:\u00a0"}, {"url": "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/38154/4956218/ENERGY-BALANCE-GUIDE-DRAFT-31JANUARY2019.pdf", "type": "a", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/38154/4956218/ENERGY-BALANCE-GUIDE-DRAFT-31JANUARY2019.pdf", "target": "_self"}}}, "children": [{"text": "ENERGY BALANCE GUIDE (Draft 31 January 2019)"}]}, {"text": " ."}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": ""}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "The time series for the EU-27 was made by summing the values for each year of the 27 countries that are currently Member States, regardless of whether they were members of the EU in any given year."}]}]

Data sources and providers This property is read-only and it is automatically extracted from this indicator's data visualizations

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Definition Clear definition of the indicator, including references to standards and classifications

[{"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "FEC represents the energy used by final consumers (such as households, transport, industry etc) for all energy uses. It is the energy that reaches the final consumer\u2019s door. PEC represents the total energy demand within a country, excluding the energy products consumed for purposes other than producing useful energy (non-energy uses, e.g. oil for plastics). For example, the electricity consumed by a household counts towards FEC; the fuel burned to generate that electricity counts towards PEC."}]}]

Unit of measure Unit in which data values are measured.

Policy / environmental relevance The degree to which the indicator meets current/potential needs of users

[{"type": "p", "children": [{"text": ""}, {"url": "https://eur02.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fenergy.ec.europa.eu%2Ftopics%2Fenergy-efficiency%2Fenergy-efficiency-targets-directive-and-rules%2Fenergy-efficiency-directive_en&data=04%7C01%7CAndy.Martin%40eea.europa.eu%7C701d1a173bb64cdab9dc08da1ba5d58b%7Cbe2e7beab4934de5bbc58b4a6a235600%7C1%7C0%7C637852696316853435%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C3000&sdata=Gh0B%2F9EkdazQwEIrzovc0wqleNO%2FjeIyMht1%2F1c00%2FY%3D&reserved=0", "type": "a", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://eur02.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fenergy.ec.europa.eu%2Ftopics%2Fenergy-efficiency%2Fenergy-efficiency-targets-directive-and-rules%2Fenergy-efficiency-directive_en&data=04%7C01%7CAndy.Martin%40eea.europa.eu%7C701d1a173bb64cdab9dc08da1ba5d58b%7Cbe2e7beab4934de5bbc58b4a6a235600%7C1%7C0%7C637852696316853435%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C3000&sdata=Gh0B%2F9EkdazQwEIrzovc0wqleNO%2FjeIyMht1%2F1c00%2FY%3D&reserved=0", "target": "_blank"}}, "title": "Energy efficiency"}, "children": [{"text": ""}]}, {"text": ""}, {"url": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1399375464230&uri=CELEX:32012L0027", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1399375464230&uri=CELEX:32012L0027", "target": "_self"}}}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "Directive 2012/27/EU"}]}, {"text": "\u00a0established a set of binding measures to help the EU reach its target of decreasing energy consumption by 20% by 2020, compared with projected levels. This was amended by\u00a0"}, {"url": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv%3AOJ.L_.2018.328.01.0210.01.ENG", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv%3AOJ.L_.2018.328.01.0210.01.ENG", "target": "_self"}}}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "Directive (EU) 2018/2002"}]}, {"text": ", which provides a policy framework for 2030 and beyond. This regulatory framework includes an energy efficiency target for the EU for 2030 of a 32.5% reduction in energy consumption compared with projected levels, which is being revised."}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": ""}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "The composition of the energy mix and the level of consumption provide an indication of the environmental pressures associated with energy consumption. The type and magnitude of the environmental impacts associated with energy consumption, such as resource depletion, greenhouse gas emissions, air pollutant emissions, water pollution and the accumulation of radioactive waste, strongly depend on the types and amounts of fuels consumed, as well as on the abatement technologies applied."}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": " "}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "This indicator is a headline indicator for monitoring progress towards achieving the aims of the Eighth Environment Action Programme (8th EAP). It contributes mainly to monitoring progress towards energy efficiency aspects of Article 2.f of the 8th EAP which requires: \u2018promoting environmental aspects of sustainability and significantly reducing key environmental and climate pressures related to the Union\u2019s production and consumption, in particular in the areas of energy, industry, buildings and infrastructure, mobility, tourism, international trade and the food system\u2019 (EU, 2022). The European Commission Communication on the 8"}, {"type": "sup", "children": [{"text": "th"}]}, {"text": "\u00a0EAP monitoring framework specifies that this indicator should monitor the achievement by 2030 of the recently agreed 2030 EU targets as detailed in the next paragraph (EC, 2022). "}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": " "}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": ""}, {"type": "b", "children": [{"text": "Targets"}]}, {"text": ""}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Energy efficiency target for 2020: The Energy Efficiency Directive 2012/27/EU introduced a reduction target of 20% in energy consumption (compared to projections for expected energy use in 2020). In concrete terms, this meant lowering the EU\u2019s final energy consumption to no more than 959 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) and primary energy consumption to no more than 1,312 Mtoe."}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": ""}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Energy efficiency target for 2030: On 10 March 2023, the Council presidency and the European Parliament negotiators reached a provisional political agreement to amend the directive and set a target for the reduction of final energy consumption (FEC) of at least 11.7% in 2030, compared with the energy consumption forecasts for 2030 made in 2020. This translates into a mandatory target of 763 Mtoe for FEC, and an indicative target of 993 Mtoe for primary energy consumption (PEC). Member states will benefit from flexibilities in reaching the target. The directive will need to be formally adopted."}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": ""}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "For more information see the\u00a0"}, {"url": "https://eur02.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fenergy.ec.europa.eu%2Ftopics%2Fenergy-efficiency%2Fenergy-efficiency-targets-directive-and-rules%2Fenergy-efficiency-directive_en&data=04%7C01%7CAndy.Martin%40eea.europa.eu%7C701d1a173bb64cdab9dc08da1ba5d58b%7Cbe2e7beab4934de5bbc58b4a6a235600%7C1%7C0%7C637852696316853435%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C3000&sdata=Gh0B%2F9EkdazQwEIrzovc0wqleNO%2FjeIyMht1%2F1c00%2FY%3D&reserved=0", "data": {"link": {"external": {"target": "_blank", "external_link": "https://eur02.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fenergy.ec.europa.eu%2Ftopics%2Fenergy-efficiency%2Fenergy-efficiency-targets-directive-and-rules%2Fenergy-efficiency-directive_en&data=04%7C01%7CAndy.Martin%40eea.europa.eu%7C701d1a173bb64cdab9dc08da1ba5d58b%7Cbe2e7beab4934de5bbc58b4a6a235600%7C1%7C0%7C637852696316853435%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C3000&sdata=Gh0B%2F9EkdazQwEIrzovc0wqleNO%2FjeIyMht1%2F1c00%2FY%3D&reserved=0"}}, "title": "Energy efficiency"}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "European Commission website on the Energy Efficiency Directive"}]}, {"text": " and the "}, {"url": "https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2023/03/10/council-and-parliament-strike-deal-on-energy-efficiency-directive/", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2023/03/10/council-and-parliament-strike-deal-on-energy-efficiency-directive/", "target": "_self"}}}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "recent agreement"}]}, {"text": "."}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": ""}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": ""}, {"type": "b", "children": [{"text": "Sources:"}]}, {"text": ""}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "EEA, 2022. Trends and projections in Europe 2022. EEA Report No 10/2022. "}, {"url": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/trends-and-projections-in-europe-2022", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/trends-and-projections-in-europe-2022", "target": "_self"}}}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/trends-and-projections-in-europe-2022"}]}, {"text": " "}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "EC, 2022a, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the monitoring framework for the 8th Environment Action Programme: Measuring progress towards the attainment of the Programme\u2019s 2030 and 2050 priority objectives, COM/2022/357 final, "}, {"url": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2022%3A357%3AFIN", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2022%3A357%3AFIN", "target": "_self"}}}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "EUR-Lex - 52022DC0357 - EN - EUR-Lex (europa.eu)"}]}, {"text": ""}]}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Eurostat, 2023. Complete energy balances (NRG_BAL_C), PEC (2020-2030) and FEC (2020-2030). "}, {"url": "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/bookmark/dea184ea-4883-453d-ba24-71e960a4f161?lang=en", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/bookmark/dea184ea-4883-453d-ba24-71e960a4f161?lang=en", "target": "_self"}}}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/bookmark/dea184ea-4883-453d-ba24-71e960a4f161?lang=en"}]}, {"text": ". Accessed May 2023."}]}]

Frequency of dissemination Time interval at which the indicator is published (in years, from 1 to 5). E.g. use 1 if it is published yearly, 2 if it is published every 2 years and so on.

Accuracy and uncertainties Closeness of computations or estimates to the unknown exact or true values that the statistics were intended to measure; closeness of the initial estimated value to the subsequent estimated value. Includes, among others, comparability (geographical and over time).

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Institutional mandate This property is read-only and it is automatically extracted from this indicator's data visualizations

Layout

Blocks The JSON representation of the object blocks.

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"EU15", "EU25", "EU28", "Pan-Europe"], "value": "geo-2623032", "label": "Denmark"}, {"group": ["EEA32", "EEA33", "EEA39", "EU25", "EU27", "EU28", "Pan-Europe"], "value": "geo-453733", "label": "Estonia"}, {"group": ["EEA32", "EEA33", "EEA39", "EU15", "EU25", "EU27", "EU28", "Pan-Europe"], "value": "geo-660013", "label": "Finland"}, {"group": ["EEA32", "EEA33", "EEA39", "EU15", "EU25", "EU27", "EU28", "Pan-Europe"], "value": "geo-3017382", "label": "France"}, {"group": ["EEA32", "EEA33", "EEA39", "EU15", "EU25", "EU27", "EU28", "Pan-Europe"], "value": "geo-2921044", "label": "Germany"}, {"group": ["EEA32", "EEA33", "EEA39", "EU15", "EU25", "EU27", "EU28", "Pan-Europe"], "value": "geo-390903", "label": "Greece"}, {"group": ["EEA32", "EEA33", "EEA39", "EU25", "EU27", "EU28", "Pan-Europe"], "value": "geo-719819", "label": "Hungary"}, {"group": ["EEA32", "EEA33", "EEA39", "EU15", "EU25", "EU27", "EU28", "Pan-Europe"], "value": "geo-2963597", "label": "Ireland"}, {"group": ["EEA32", "EEA33", 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[{"type": "p", "children": [{"url": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/external/primary-and-final-energy-consumption", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/external/primary-and-final-energy-consumption", "target": "_self"}}}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "Complete energy balances (NRG_BAL_C), PEC (2020-2030) and FEC (2020-2030)"}]}]}]}}}, "7d4ced71-2d02-4a07-acaa-d86020e10db7": {"plaintext": "Reducing energy consumption typically leads to a reduction in environmental pressures associated with the production and consumption of energy. It supports the achievement of the EU renewable energy and greenhouse gas targets, lowers emissions of pollutants and enhances energy security.", "@type": "slate", "value": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Reducing energy consumption typically leads to a reduction in environmental pressures associated with the production and consumption of energy. It supports the achievement of the EU renewable energy and greenhouse gas targets, lowers emissions of pollutants and enhances energy security."}]}]}, "6f5b5521-407a-4f2a-aae3-3aa0600a2bfb": {"plaintext": "In March 2023, EU co-legislators reached an agreement to set a binding target of 763 Mtoe for final energy consumption (FEC), and an indicative target of 993 Mtoe for primary energy consumption (PEC) to be achieved by 2030. FEC represents the energy used by final consumers. PEC represents the total energy demand within a country, including losses.", "@type": "slate", "value": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "In March 2023, EU co-legislators "}, {"url": "https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2023/03/10/council-and-parliament-strike-deal-on-energy-efficiency-directive/", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2023/03/10/council-and-parliament-strike-deal-on-energy-efficiency-directive/", "target": "_self"}}}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "reached an agreement"}]}, {"text": " to set a binding target of 763 Mtoe for final energy consumption (FEC), and an indicative target of 993 Mtoe for primary energy consumption (PEC) to be achieved by 2030. FEC represents the energy used by final consumers. PEC represents the total energy demand within a country, including losses."}]}]}, "8c4b32a3-9568-4856-a098-11d49aca0876": {"plaintext": "According to Eurostat energy balances , after an extraordinary drop in energy consumption in Europe in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the EU\u2019s final energy consumption grew sharply by 6.9% between 2020 and 2021. The increase can be largely attributed to the economic recovery and lifting of pandemic restrictions (EEA, 2022). Despite this increase, the absolute FEC level reached in 2021 (968 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe)) was still below pre-pandemic levels.", "@type": "slate", "value": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "According to "}, {"url": "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/energy/database/additional-data#Energy%20balances", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/energy/database/additional-data#Energy%20balances", "target": "_self"}}}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "Eurostat energy balances"}]}, {"text": ", after an extraordinary drop in energy consumption in Europe in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the EU\u2019s final energy consumption grew sharply by 6.9% between 2020 and 2021. The increase can be largely attributed to the economic recovery and lifting of pandemic restrictions (EEA, 2022). Despite this increase, the absolute FEC level reached in 2021 (968 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe)) was still below pre-pandemic levels."}]}]}, "2f714c63-893e-4420-a9ae-945646980e28": {"plaintext": "Looking at the full time-series, reductions since 2005 have been more pronounced for PEC (-12%) than for FEC (-7%). The replacement of fossil fuels by renewables in electricity generation typically reduces PEC, and the share of renewable energy in the EU has more than doubled since 2005. Various other factors have contributed to the reduction of the energy demand in the EU, such as energy saving measures, energy transformation improvements, structural changes towards less energy intensive industries and gradually warmer winters because of climate change.", "@type": "slate", "value": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Looking at the full time-series, reductions since 2005 have been more pronounced for PEC (-12%) than for FEC (-7%). The replacement of fossil fuels by renewables in electricity generation typically reduces PEC, and the "}, {"url": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/ims/share-of-energy-consumption-from", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://www.eea.europa.eu/ims/share-of-energy-consumption-from", "target": "_self"}}}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "share of renewable energy"}]}, {"text": " in the EU has more than doubled since 2005. Various other factors have contributed to the reduction of the energy demand in the EU, such as energy saving measures, energy transformation improvements, structural changes towards less energy intensive industries and gradually warmer winters because of climate change. "}]}]}, "deb7e84d-d2c8-4491-90fa-3dc65fe02143": {"plaintext": "", "required": true, "value": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"text": ""}]}], "readOnlySettings": true, "fixed": true, "@type": "slate", "instructions": {"content-type": "text/html", "data": " ", "encoding": "utf8"}}, "99a481e4-da4c-47c6-b9cf-65abcd73bc72": {"plaintext": "Between 2020 and 2021, PEC grew by a historical 6.1% to a total of 1,311Mtoe, with the highest growth reported for solid fossil fuels and nuclear energy. As for FEC, the absolute PEC level reached in 2021 was still below pre-pandemic levels (Eurostat, 2023).", "@type": "slate", "value": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Between 2020 and 2021, PEC grew by a historical 6.1% to a total of 1,311Mtoe, with the highest growth reported for solid fossil fuels and nuclear energy. As for FEC, the absolute PEC level reached in 2021 was still below pre-pandemic levels (Eurostat, 2023). "}]}]}, "494a4407-9837-43ff-a913-1f2876a28ed2": {"plaintext": "Past trends and official modelling exercises do not yet capture the recent geopolitical developments and the latest policy developments in Europe, making it difficult to assess the likelihood of achieving these targets at the moment of writing this assessment. Nevertheless, the new targets imply a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of -2.61% for the remaining period of 2021-2030, which is seven times the CAGR observed since 2005. As such, it seems unlikely that the EU will meet its targets unless a deep and fast transformation of the energy sector gains speed during this decade.", "@type": "slate", "value": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "Past trends and "}, {"url": "https://energy.ec.europa.eu/data-and-analysis/energy-modelling/policy-scenarios-delivering-european-green-deal_en", "data": {"link": {"external": {"external_link": "https://energy.ec.europa.eu/data-and-analysis/energy-modelling/policy-scenarios-delivering-european-green-deal_en", "target": "_self"}}}, "type": "a", "children": [{"text": "official modelling exercises"}]}, {"text": " do not yet capture the recent geopolitical developments and the latest policy developments in Europe, making it difficult to assess the likelihood of achieving these targets at the moment of writing this assessment. Nevertheless, the new targets imply a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of -2.61% for the remaining period of 2021-2030, which is seven times the CAGR observed since 2005. As such, it seems unlikely that the EU will meet its targets unless a deep and fast transformation of the energy sector gains speed during this decade."}]}]}, "ee1165ed-dbff-4a2e-af94-d553188646f2": {"plaintext": "In 2021, the transport sector experienced a 9% annual growth in FEC after Covid-19-related mobility restrictions were lifted. Industrial activity also grew, increasing FEC by 4%. Aided by cold weather, the most significant rise in energy consumption occurred in buildings, with a notable 6% increase that surpassed the previous year's drop, returning FEC in this sector to 2013 levels.", "@type": "slate", "value": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"text": "In 2021, the transport sector experienced a 9% annual growth in FEC after Covid-19-related mobility restrictions were lifted. 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A full reference list appears in the supporting information section.", "encoding": "utf8"}}}

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