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"plaintext": "Recent policies developed under the European Green Deal, such as the farm to fork strategy (EC, 2020a) and the EU biodiversity strategy for 2030 (EC, 2020b), have raised sustainability ambitions for agriculture and food systems. Given the mixed results obtained by the CAP 2014-2020 regarding sustainability in agriculture (EC, 2022b), the newly-approved CAP 2023-2027 (EC, 2021) is expected to be \u2018fairer, greener and more performance-based\u2019 (Council of the EU, 2021). 40% of its total expenditure (about EUR154.6 billion) is earmarked for climate action (EC, 2022c).",
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"plaintext": "failed to contribute to halting biodiversity decline (ECA, 2020) possibly increased rather than reduced water demand (ECA, 2021a) did not significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions \u2014 despite the fact that a quarter of all 2014-2020 EU agriculture spending, amounting to over EUR100 billion, was earmarked for tackling climate change (ECA, 2021b).",
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"plaintext": "While global food chains, market competition, industrial processes and increasing productivity have turned agriculture into a profitable economic sector, it is also one of the biggest contributors to environmental and sustainability challenges in Europe and worldwide. In tandem, the COVID-19 pandemic, recent geopolitical developments in Europe and socio-economic trends have driven attention towards agriculture and food systems. Considering these new challenges, it is even more urgent to rethink agriculture and food systems to make them resilient and sustainable. This briefing reflects on what makes agriculture unsustainable today \u2014 and the types of agriculture we may want to preserve and support.",
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"plaintext": " Despite the focus on producing more, we are still far from achieving healthy diets for all \u2014 globally or in Europe ",
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"plaintext": "Numerous, intertwined drivers of change bring about new risks and uncertainties. These drivers include urbanisation, digitalisation, lifestyle shifts in Europe and beyond, climate change, environmental degradation, resource scarcity and geopolitical instability. They also potentially include crop failure, disruptions affecting international supply chains, price shocks (e.g. fuels and fertilisers) (Cagnin et al., 2021) and animal disease outbreaks (e.g. African swine fever, bird flu). However, some of these risks and uncertainties also present new opportunities for reconfiguring agriculture and food systems in Europe and elsewhere (EEA, 2019b, 2020a). For example, the EU is one of the world\u2019s main importers and exporters; this means it can play an influential role in setting standards for food and feed production and trade (Bock et al., 2022).",
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"text": "Numerous, intertwined drivers of change bring about new risks and uncertainties. These drivers include urbanisation, digitalisation, lifestyle shifts in Europe and beyond, climate change, environmental degradation, resource scarcity and geopolitical instability. They also potentially include crop failure, disruptions affecting international supply chains, price shocks (e.g. fuels and fertilisers) (Cagnin et al., 2021) and animal disease outbreaks (e.g. African swine fever, bird flu). However, some of these risks and uncertainties also present new opportunities for reconfiguring agriculture and food systems in Europe and elsewhere (EEA, 2019b, 2020a). For example, the EU is one of the world\u2019s main importers and exporters; this means it can play an influential role in setting standards for food and feed production and trade (Bock et al., 2022)."
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"plaintext": "Between 2012 and 2018, the extent of total arable land and permanent crops did not change significantly (EEA, 2019b). However, several regions in Europe have been subject to \u2018land abandonment\u2019 \u2014 a process \u2018driven by a combination of socio-economic, political and environmental factors by which formerly cultivated fields are no longer economically viable under existing land use and socio-economic conditions\u2019 (Ustaoglu and Collier, 2018). Land abandonment particularly affects rural communities in remote regions, and generally \u2018where local economies rely mainly on small farm holdings with limited economic prospects and low productivity, with younger generations tending to move to urban areas\u2019 (EEA, 2019a). Recent estimates indicated that around 30% of agricultural areas in the EU are under at least a moderate risk of land abandonment by 2030 (European Parliament, 2021).",
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"text": "Between 2012 and 2018, the extent of total arable land and permanent crops did not change significantly (EEA, 2019b). However, several regions in Europe have been subject to \u2018land abandonment\u2019 \u2014 a process \u2018driven by a combination of socio-economic, political and environmental factors by which formerly cultivated fields are no longer economically viable under existing land use and socio-economic conditions\u2019 (Ustaoglu and Collier, 2018). Land abandonment particularly affects rural communities in remote regions, and generally \u2018where local economies rely mainly on small farm holdings with limited economic prospects and low productivity, with younger generations tending to move to urban areas\u2019 (EEA, 2019a). Recent estimates indicated that around 30% of agricultural areas in the EU are under at least a moderate risk of land abandonment by 2030 (European Parliament, 2021)."
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"plaintext": "However, the CAP 2023-2027\u2019s effectiveness will largely depend on its implementation at Member State level through national strategic plans. Moreover, despite the CAP 2023-2027\u2019s heightened level of ambition, civil society organisations (e.g. EEB, 2021, EEB and BirdLife International, 2022) have raised concerns over its design and ability to achieve its goals.",
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"plaintext": "In Europe, policies have ensured that the agricultural sector remains competitive. At the same time, efficiency-driven approaches, focusing on short-term productivity and profitability, are paradoxically associated with increased resource use (Vivanco et al., 2018; Paul et al., 2019). For example, \u2018where lower (production) costs result in lower prices, consumers are likely to react with increased consumption of the more efficient product\u2019 (Paul et al., 2019). Moreover, as higher efficiencies mean lower production costs and higher income, producers are motivated to expand (specialised) production (Paul et al., 2019).",
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"text": "In Europe, policies have ensured that the agricultural sector remains competitive. At the same time, efficiency-driven approaches, focusing on short-term productivity and profitability, are paradoxically associated with increased resource use (Vivanco et al., 2018; Paul et al., 2019). For example, \u2018where lower (production) costs result in lower prices, consumers are likely to react with increased consumption of the more efficient product\u2019 (Paul et al., 2019). Moreover, as higher efficiencies mean lower production costs and higher income, producers are motivated to expand (specialised) production (Paul et al., 2019)."
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"plaintext": "Traditional agricultural practices promoted and reinterpreted through agroecology (Altieri, 2002), coupled with change across the whole food system may offer important insights. For example, leveraging dietary change, agroecology and the integration of crop and livestock production could reinforce Europe\u2019s autonomy, resilience and productivity. At the same time, it could reduce pressure on the environment and help cut greenhouse gas emissions (Billen et al., 2021).",
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"text": "Traditional agricultural practices promoted and reinterpreted through agroecology (Altieri, 2002), coupled with change across the whole food system may offer important insights. For example, leveraging dietary change, agroecology and the integration of crop and livestock production could reinforce Europe\u2019s autonomy, resilience and productivity. At the same time, it could reduce pressure on the environment and help cut greenhouse gas emissions (Billen et al., 2021)."
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"plaintext": "A recent analysis of contrasting scenarios for the future of European agriculture in 2040 indicates that in a \u2018scenario characterised by environmental-friendly practices, multifunctional landscapes and localism, significant decreases in the environmental pressure of agriculture can be achieved with minimum decrease in agricultural output\u2019 (Rega et al., 2019). This scenario outperforms \u2018neo-liberal\u2019, \u2018protectionist\u2019 and \u2018sovereigntist\u2019 scenarios and suggests that policies targeting multifunctionality and diversified agricultural landscapes could effectively protect biodiversity and ensure food security in Europe (Rega et al., 2019). Similarly, the European Committee of the Regions (2021) suggests that agroecology should be pursued further, as it \u2018increases the economic and social resilience of farms with healthy and accessible food\u2019 and reduces some environmental pressures. Nevertheless, concerns have been raised that scenarios with high climate ambitions could negatively impact agricultural productivity and prices (Barreiro Hurle et al., 2021).",
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"text": "A recent analysis of contrasting scenarios for the future of European agriculture in 2040 indicates that in a \u2018scenario characterised by environmental-friendly practices, multifunctional landscapes and localism, significant decreases in the environmental pressure of agriculture can be achieved with minimum decrease in agricultural output\u2019 (Rega et al., 2019). This scenario outperforms \u2018neo-liberal\u2019, \u2018protectionist\u2019 and \u2018sovereigntist\u2019 scenarios and suggests that policies targeting multifunctionality and diversified agricultural landscapes could effectively protect biodiversity and ensure food security in Europe (Rega et al., 2019). Similarly, the European Committee of the Regions (2021) suggests that agroecology should be pursued further, as it \u2018increases the economic and social resilience of farms with healthy and accessible food\u2019 and reduces some environmental pressures. Nevertheless, concerns have been raised that scenarios with high climate ambitions could negatively impact agricultural productivity and prices (Barreiro Hurle et al., 2021)."
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"plaintext": "Governments, scientists, farmers and non-governmental organisations worldwide have been working together for years to devise and act upon new ideas, policies, blueprints and narratives for transforming agriculture and food systems (EEA, 2017; 2019b; EC, 2020c; SAPEA, 2020). Against this backdrop, and considering the rising challenges associated with recent geopolitical developments in Europe, it has become even more important to \u2018rethink agriculture and food systems\u2019 and push them towards resilience and sustainability (EC, 2022a).",
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"plaintext": "Agriculture plays a central role in human societies \u2014 shaping our landscapes, economies, communities and cultures. Over the last 70 years, agriculture has evolved from primarily a local activity to a global industry tasked with feeding a growing global population with globalised tastes (EEA, 2019a). Agriculture\u2019s intensification and expansion worldwide has led to widespread pressures on the environment and climate. This poses a threat to the health of people and the planet and to the viability of food systems (EEA, 2019b,c, 2021a). It also bears potentially negative repercussions for social and political stability.",
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"text": "Agriculture plays a central role in human societies \u2014 shaping our landscapes, economies, communities and cultures. Over the last 70 years, agriculture has evolved from primarily a local activity to a global industry tasked with feeding a growing global population with globalised tastes (EEA, 2019a). Agriculture\u2019s intensification and expansion worldwide has led to widespread pressures on the environment and climate. This poses a threat to the health of people and the planet and to the viability of food systems (EEA, 2019b,c, 2021a). It also bears potentially negative repercussions for social and political stability."
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"plaintext": "excess nutrients in water bodies and water overabstraction chemical pollution loss of landscape diversity and features (e.g. ponds and hedgerows) loss of soil health and fertility biodiversity loss, including pollinator decline (Figure 1).",
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"plaintext": "Agriculture as an agroecological system is a holistic approach that promotes diversifying farms and reducing chemical inputs. It also seeks to enhance biodiversity and stimulate interactions between different species to build long-term soil fertility, healthy agroecosystems, and secure livelihoods (IPES-Food, 2016; FAO, 2018b). It is based on knowledge sharing and co-creation \u2014 and the premise that increasing production and efficiency is not enough to reconcile human and ecosystem health with social welfare (HLPE, 2019).",
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"plaintext": "Agriculture also significantly contributes to climate change by accounting for nearly 10% of the EU\u2019s total greenhouse gas emissions (EEA, 2021g). In turn, climate change affects agriculture in several ways. Changes in temperature and precipitation, as well as weather and climate extremes, are already influencing crop yields and livestock productivity in Europe. These changes also affect water availability for irrigation, livestock watering and food processing (EEA, 2019c, 2021d). Agriculture is dependent on soil characteristics, weather patterns and biodiversity \u2014 which makes it one of the socio-economic sectors most sensitive to climate change (EEA, 2021a).",
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"text": "Agriculture also significantly contributes to climate change by accounting for nearly 10% of the EU\u2019s total greenhouse gas emissions (EEA, 2021g). In turn, climate change affects agriculture in several ways. Changes in temperature and precipitation, as well as weather and climate extremes, are already influencing crop yields and livestock productivity in Europe. These changes also affect water availability for irrigation, livestock watering and food processing (EEA, 2019c, 2021d). Agriculture is dependent on soil characteristics, weather patterns and biodiversity \u2014 which makes it one of the socio-economic sectors most sensitive to climate change (EEA, 2021a)."
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"plaintext": "Moreover, CAP support for 2014-2020 was not fairly distributed: 20% of the beneficiaries received 80% of CAP direct payments (EC, 2022b). Farmers were not fully recognised for their roles in providing public goods outside of the market (Buckwell et al., 2017) and their share of financial benefits was low.",
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"text": "Moreover, CAP support for 2014-2020 was not fairly distributed: 20% of the beneficiaries received 80% of CAP direct payments (EC, 2022b). Farmers were not fully recognised for their roles in providing public goods outside of the market (Buckwell et al., 2017) and their share of financial benefits was low."
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"plaintext": "According to other studies (e.g. WRI, 2018), the key to sustainability in agriculture lies in increasing efficiency and productivity \u2014 coupled with sparing land, managing demand and innovating. Sparing land from agriculture would allow it to be allocated to nature conservation; meanwhile, a high-tech production system would increase the remaining land\u2019s productivity. At the global scale, this could prevent further deforestation and increase carbon sequestration \u2014 which would contribute to achieving global climate goals (WRI, 2018). However, intensifying agricultural production requires high inputs of agrochemicals to boost production, with consequent impacts on biodiversity, soil health and food safety. This may also reinforce some of the dynamics which lie at the core of the paradoxes.",
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"3042fb84-b1fc-4819-bd72-a15667435632": {
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"value": [
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{
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"361703c5-3833-427b-a5eb-0e9c40e9feb9": {
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"3c1d566c-5134-45bc-8c4b-53bc4a730db2": {
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"text": "These enabling functions have been at the core of the CAP since its reform in 2003 (EC, 2003). As much as 37% of the EU\u2019s budget for 2014-2020 went into the CAP (Mo\u00ebs, 2018) \u2014 primarily to support farmers and the rural economy, and improve agricultural productivity to ensure a stable supply of affordable food. The secondary aim of the CAP 2014-2020 was to maintain rural areas and help tackle environmental issues."
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"text": "These impacts are still very significant, despite the fact that since 1960, food production and land use have been decoupled thanks to increases in yield (OECD, 2021). The impacts remain because global competition generally incentivised those who could produce the most and at a cheaper cost, even if the environment was damaged in the process (Benton and Bailey, 2019). Many of the environmental problems associated with agriculture \u2018are linked specifically to \u201cindustrial agriculture\u201d: the input-intensive crop monocultures and industrial-scale feedlots that now dominate farming landscapes\u2019 (IPES-Food, 2016)."
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"plaintext": "(3) Food and nutrition security: contributing to food security by producing safe, nutritious and affordable food \u2014 and incorporating a long-term perspective.",
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"text": " \u2014 such as integrated crop-livestock systems, soil organic matter management, mixed cropping, crop rotations, biological pest control and agroforestry \u2014 can improve soil and water management and promote biodiversity. These solutions also contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation (EEA, 2021c) and to nature conservation and restoration (EEA, 2019d)."
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"text": "The broader questions that need to be asked include reflecting on the trade-offs that may emerge when the futures we imagine are realised. Can better quality food and production processes be provided for everyone? Is there a risk that these would only be accessible to an elite few? How can quality be ensured while upholding fairness? There are also many actors who need to contribute to making agriculture more sustainable. Some have much more power than others to influence activities and choices (EEA, 2017; Bock et al., 2022). This influence should come with responsibility. How can less influential actors be empowered to contribute to more sustainable agriculture?"
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"plaintext": "Between 2005 and 2016, the number of farms in Europe decreased by about one quarter. In other words, nearly 4.2 million farms were lost \u2014 the vast majority of which were small farms (Eurostat, 2018). Small-scale farming in Europe is also threatened by land grabbing, a process involving \u2018large-scale purchase or leasing of agricultural land by companies, governments and private individuals\u2019 (EESC, 2015). In land grabbing, land ownership becomes increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few landowners and foreign capital, with a \u2018detrimental effect on rural life, with jobs disappearing in the regions affected\u2019 (EESC, 2015).",
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"text": "Between 2005 and 2016, the number of farms in Europe decreased by about one quarter. In other words, nearly 4.2 million farms were lost \u2014 the vast majority of which were small farms (Eurostat, 2018). Small-scale farming in Europe is also threatened by land grabbing, a process involving \u2018large-scale purchase or leasing of agricultural land by companies, governments and private individuals\u2019 (EESC, 2015). In land grabbing, land ownership becomes increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few landowners and foreign capital, with a \u2018detrimental effect on rural life, with jobs disappearing in the regions affected\u2019 (EESC, 2015)."
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"plaintext": "Farmers can be seen as guardians of rural heritage and cultural landscapes . Farming is not simply a \u2018job\u2019 done by people in rural areas. It represents a way of living and knowing and creates a territory that is distinct from urban spaces; it has its own identity. Farmers are seen as knowledge-holders and guardians of traditional practices.",
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"text": ". Farming is not simply a \u2018job\u2019 done by people in rural areas. It represents a way of living and knowing and creates a territory that is distinct from urban spaces; it has its own identity. Farmers are seen as knowledge-holders and guardians of traditional practices."
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"text": "Agriculture is highly interconnected with a broad set of activities, economic sectors, societal actors, regulations and policies. Considered together, these are often referred to as a food system. Such systems operate across multiple regional scales and are interconnected through international supply chains, financial markets, technologies, flows of resources, information and ideas. How agriculture is framed and its functions are prioritised may have important direct and indirect effects on other food system components and overall sustainability outcomes. These effects \u2014 especially the indirect ones \u2014 may be counterintuitive. If they are not acknowledged and addressed, they may lead to undesirable consequences. Three important examples are illustrated below."
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"plaintext": "European citizens and institutions certainly do not lack knowledge (e.g. EEA, 2017, 2019a,b,c, 2021a,b,c,d) or ideas about possible future avenues. However, there is no obvious solution to these questions or blueprints \u2014 particularly at a time of heightened challenges and uncertainty. The suitability of one particular solution is often dependent on the perspective of the observer, as scientific findings and insights alone cannot resolve ethical questions surrounding sustainability issues (EEA, 2020a; Benton and Harwatt, 2022). These are questions that can only be addressed based on people\u2019s worldviews, values and beliefs (Vries, 2013). Hence, to realise systemic change, we need actionable knowledge \u2014 co-produced by citizens and communities. The possibilities for such change are ready to be explored.",
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"text": "European citizens and institutions certainly do not lack knowledge (e.g. EEA, 2017, 2019a,b,c, 2021a,b,c,d) or ideas about possible future avenues. However, there is no obvious solution to these questions or blueprints \u2014 particularly at a time of heightened challenges and uncertainty. The suitability of one particular solution is often dependent on the perspective of the observer, as scientific findings and insights alone cannot resolve ethical questions surrounding sustainability issues (EEA, 2020a; Benton and Harwatt, 2022). These are questions that can only be addressed based on people\u2019s worldviews, values and beliefs (Vries, 2013). Hence, to realise systemic change, we need actionable knowledge \u2014 co-produced by citizens and communities. The possibilities for such change are ready to be explored."
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"plaintext": "Paradoxes at the heart of unsustainability in agriculture and food systems",
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"text": "Paradoxes at the heart of unsustainability in agriculture and food systems\u00a0"
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"plaintext": "In Europe, \u2018while intensification has enabled the production of food for a growing population, intensive agriculture is also putting pressure on the very resource that sustains it: healthy and productive soil\u2019 (EEA, 2019a). Overall, the intensification of agriculture has resulted in (EEA, 2019a,b):",
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"plaintext": "(1) Social well-being: taking care of rural heritage, including the landscape, farmers, rural society and livelihoods. Farmers are seen as experts, empowered to make their own choices.",
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"plaintext": "Agriculture contributes to severe environmental and sustainability impacts such as \u2018widespread degradation of land, water and ecosystems; high [greenhouse gas] emissions; biodiversity losses; and livelihood stresses for farmers around the world\u2019 (IPES-Food, 2016). Recent findings confirm the major roles that climate change and intensive agriculture play in driving the decline of insect biodiversity worldwide (Outhwaite et al., 2022). There are even warnings of a potential global collapse of insect life, pointing to potentially catastrophic effects on food production worldwide (Hallmann et al., 2017; S\u00e1nchez\u2011Bayo and Wyckhuys, 2019).",
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"text": "Agriculture contributes to severe environmental and sustainability impacts such as \u2018widespread degradation of land, water and ecosystems; high [greenhouse gas] emissions; biodiversity losses; and livelihood stresses for farmers around the world\u2019 (IPES-Food, 2016). Recent findings confirm the major roles that climate change and intensive agriculture play in driving the decline of insect biodiversity worldwide (Outhwaite et al., 2022). There are even warnings of a potential global collapse of insect life, pointing to potentially catastrophic effects on food production worldwide (Hallmann et al., 2017; S\u00e1nchez\u2011Bayo and Wyckhuys, 2019)."
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"plaintext": "Designing practices within the new paradigm may include keeping old practices that are still relevant and making space for creativity. For example, efficiency could play a role in more collaborative ways of producing and consuming. Goals such as ecosystem health and human health and well-being could be better defined to become mutually-reinforcing.",
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"text": "Designing practices within the new paradigm may include keeping old practices that are still relevant and making space for creativity. For example, efficiency could play a role in more collaborative ways of producing and consuming. Goals such as\u00a0"
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"plaintext": "Figure 1. Decline in grassland butterflies (population index) in Europe between 1991 and 2018",
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