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"plaintext": "Perhaps the key question is this: can we imagine a world in which social and economic practices are in symbiosis with nature \u2014 rather than just means to human ends?",
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"text": "Perhaps the key question is this: can we imagine a world in which social and economic practices are in symbiosis with nature \u2014 rather than just means to human ends?"
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"plaintext": "In modern capitalist societies, at the interface between civil society and the market, there is the particular construct of citizens as consumers , absolving a fundamental function in the treadmill of production underpinning economic growth (Gould et al., 2015; Dewandre and Guly\u00e1s, 2018). Consumption levels, patterns and lifestyles underpinned by affluent societies and individuals are also acknowledged to be among the main drivers of environmental pressures. Change in this respect is likely to be necessary too (see for example Akenji et al., 2021). Within the movements mentioned, non-consumerist lifestyles develop and flourish (see also EEA, 2021b). Still, they are a small minority. There is little point in trying to enforce policies grounded in other life frames if materialism and massive consumption still dominate hegemonic discourses and cultural norms.",
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"text": ", absolving a fundamental function in the treadmill of production underpinning economic growth (Gould et al., 2015; Dewandre and Guly\u00e1s, 2018). Consumption levels, patterns and lifestyles underpinned by affluent societies and individuals are also acknowledged to be among the main drivers of environmental pressures. Change in this respect is likely to be necessary too (see for example Akenji et al., 2021). Within the movements mentioned, non-consumerist lifestyles develop and flourish (see also EEA, 2021b). Still, they are a small minority. There is little point in trying to enforce policies grounded in other life frames if materialism and massive consumption still dominate hegemonic discourses and cultural norms."
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"plaintext": "It may not be possible or desirable to exit the Anthropocene deliberately, as there is no way back to humankind not being the ultimate force of change on the planet. There are no shortcuts out of the current climate and biodiversity crises and we must find dignified pathways within them. At the same time, there is no lack of knowledge about possible paths to \u2018bend the Great Acceleration trends\u2019 and make us live well within planetary boundaries (see for instance Dixson-Decl\u00e8ve et al., 2022).",
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"text": "It may not be possible or desirable to exit the Anthropocene deliberately, as there is no way back to humankind not being the ultimate force of change on the planet. There are no shortcuts out of the current climate and biodiversity crises and we must find dignified pathways within them. At the same time, there is no lack of knowledge about possible paths to \u2018bend the Great Acceleration trends\u2019 and make us live well within planetary boundaries (see for instance Dixson-Decl\u00e8ve et al., 2022)."
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"plaintext": "In terms of governance, the challenges call for accepting a wider range of justifications for protecting nature, beyond anthropocentric utilitarian arguments. In the words of the IPBES, the excessive reliance on the life frame of living from nature has been the main culprit behind the massive degradation of ecosystems and biodiversity loss (IPBES, 2022a). This needs to change. There must be a better balance with other frames, \u00a0such as living in , with and as nature, in assessing and evaluating actions and in driving policies. Accordingly, there are even proposals of a charter for the fundamental legal rights of nature. Governance systems and policy instruments have a fundamental role to play. According to IPBES (Kelemen et al., 2022), governance systems and policy instruments can contribute to creating enabling conditions for systemic change by:",
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"text": "nature, in assessing and evaluating actions and in driving policies. Accordingly, there are even proposals of a charter for the fundamental legal rights of nature. Governance systems and policy instruments have a fundamental role to play. According to IPBES (Kelemen et al., 2022), governance systems and policy instruments can contribute to creating enabling conditions for systemic change by:"
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"plaintext": "Yet historical and current responsibilities for cumulative planetary pressures are unevenly distributed depending on geography, culture, socio-economic development level, wealth and affluence. The history of Western countries is characterised by colonisation, appropriation and commodification (Moore, 2017, 2018; Hickel et al., 2021). Historically, these countries are also responsible for the highest contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, largely due to the industrial revolution fuelled by fossil resources (Hickel, 2020). Moreover, high-income nations were responsible for 74% of excess material used globally between 1970 and 2017 (Hickel et al., 2022). In 2015, on the global scale, the top 10% of income earners emitted more than twice the amount of carbon dioxide than the bottom 50% of income earners (Hubacek et al., 2017). This points to the issue of \u2018climate justice\u2019: top polluters are likely to be the least affected by climate change, while the poorest, lowest polluters are likely to be most vulnerable (OECD, 2021). In essence, a \u2018relatively small and wealthy group is responsible for most resource claims and ecological damage \u2014 and hence for the existential threats faced most severely by impoverished populations\u2019 (Rammelt et al., 2022).",
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"text": "Yet historical and current responsibilities for cumulative planetary pressures are unevenly distributed depending on geography, culture, socio-economic development level, wealth and affluence. The history of Western countries is characterised by colonisation, appropriation and commodification (Moore, 2017, 2018; Hickel et al., 2021). Historically, these countries are also responsible for the highest contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, largely due to the industrial revolution fuelled by fossil resources (Hickel, 2020). Moreover, high-income nations were responsible for 74% of excess material used globally between 1970 and 2017 (Hickel et al., 2022). In 2015, on the global scale, the top 10% of income earners emitted more than twice the amount of carbon dioxide than the bottom 50% of income earners (Hubacek et al., 2017). This points to the issue of \u2018climate justice\u2019: top polluters are likely to be the least affected by climate change, while the poorest, lowest polluters are likely to be most vulnerable (OECD, 2021). In essence, a \u2018relatively small and wealthy group is responsible for most resource claims and ecological damage \u2014 and hence for the existential threats faced most severely by impoverished populations\u2019 (Rammelt et al., 2022)."
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"plaintext": "Evolving institutional mindsets",
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"plaintext": "We are not by necessity destined to a Malthusian catastrophe of growth and collapse. However, change is required in many areas, including to address issues like overconsumption, inequality, power asymmetries, vested interests and short-termism. Acknowledging and questioning the mindsets and paradigms that underpin our societies, economies and institutions is necessary. In the context of biodiversity, the global crisis is tightly linked to the way nature is valued in policymaking, which, unfortunately, has predominantly \u2018prioritised a narrow set of values at the expense of both nature and society\u2019 despite the diversity of nature\u2019s values (IPBES, 2022a).",
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"footnote": "A Malthusian catastrophe is an event that occurs when population growth outpaces agricultural production, causing famine or war, resulting in poverty and depopulation (Desrochers and Hoffbauers, 2009).",
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"text": "\u00a0of growth and collapse. However, change is required in many areas, including to address issues like overconsumption, inequality, power asymmetries, vested interests and short-termism. Acknowledging and questioning the mindsets and paradigms that underpin our societies, economies and institutions is necessary. In the context of biodiversity, the global crisis is tightly linked to the way nature is valued in policymaking, which, unfortunately, has predominantly \u2018prioritised a narrow set of values at the expense of both nature and society\u2019 despite the diversity of nature\u2019s values (IPBES, 2022a)."
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"plaintext": "Overcoming anthropocentrism would then not be a matter of embracing its antithesis. Rather, it would amount to caring for and protecting the symbiotic relationships of the supraorganisms on every scale up to the planet itself. In N\u00e6ss\u2019s words: \u2018Through identification they may come to see their own interest served by conservation, through genuine self-love, love of a widened and deepened self\u2019 (N\u00e6ss, 1995). Empirical studies support this claim by showing a correlation between a sense of connectedness and pro-environmental/pro-social behaviours (Van der Linden, 2015, Mackay and Schmitt, 2019; Alcock et al., 2020; Richardson et al., 2020; Whitburn et al., 2020; Daryanto and Song, 2021).",
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"text": "Overcoming anthropocentrism would then not be a matter of embracing its antithesis. Rather, it would amount to caring for and protecting the symbiotic relationships of the supraorganisms on every scale up to the planet itself. In N\u00e6ss\u2019s words: \u2018Through identification they may come to see their own interest served by conservation, through genuine self-love, love of a widened and deepened self\u2019 (N\u00e6ss, 1995). Empirical studies support this claim by showing a correlation between a sense of connectedness and pro-environmental/pro-social behaviours (Van der Linden, 2015, Mackay and Schmitt, 2019; Alcock et al., 2020; Richardson et al., 2020; Whitburn et al., 2020; Daryanto and Song, 2021)."
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"plaintext": "The UN General Assembly passed a resolution on 28 July 2022, recognising a clean, healthy and sustainable environment as a human right. While not legally binding, such a resolution can serve as catalyst for action. Similarly, there is an ongoing discussion within the EU on corporate liability for environmental damage, the concept of ecocide and its recognition in EU law (see Procedure 2020/2027(INI) ).",
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"text": "The UN General Assembly passed a resolution on 28 July 2022, recognising a clean, healthy and sustainable environment as a human right. While not legally binding, such a resolution can serve as catalyst for action. Similarly, there is an ongoing discussion within the EU on corporate liability for environmental damage, "
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"footnote": "In June 2021, an international expert panel proposed adding ecocide as a new crime under international criminal law and defined it as \u2018unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts\u2019 (Stop Ecocide Foundation, 2021).",
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"plaintext": "Regardless of its scientific status, the Anthropocene differs from previous geological epochs in that the strongest change agent (the human species) also has the capacity for self-awareness and conscious change.",
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"plaintext": "The very idea of the Anthropocene has triggered several discourses about the epoch itself, and on the need to exit it and how (Heikkurinen et al., 2019). Exiting the Anthropocene by rethinking our relationship with nature, as suggested by Albrecht (2015), is arguably an appealing proposal for those concerned with climate change, ecological degradation and, ultimately, societal collapse. However, this may not resonate universally, as some have benefited far too much from the Anthropocene and the Great Acceleration, while others far too little.",
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"plaintext": "Developments in science and philosophy can give inspiration for further institutional and political change. Conservation and weak and strong sustainability can all be seen as initial steps on the way out of the Anthropocene but still reflect its mindset: a dualist thinking that sets a sharp boundary between \u2018us\u2019 humans and \u2018them\u2019 non-humans. However, the limitations of this mindset are evident. Can \u2018we\u2019, humans, really consider ourselves independent from the \u2018non-humans\u2019? Scientists and scholars have described the many ways in which humans, other species and the ecosystems are interdependent (Meynen, 2021; Oliver, 2020). From biological and psychological perspectives, individuality is an illusion (Oliver, 2020). While specificity and unicity matter, it is of outmost importance to acknowledge that we are interconnected . This begins with the human body, which is already a supraorganism in which thousands of species of symbionts (bacteria, archaea and fungi) play a role in maintaining human health (e.g. Morais et al., 2021).",
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"text": "Developments in science and philosophy can give inspiration for further institutional and political change. Conservation and weak and strong sustainability can all be seen as initial steps on the way out of the Anthropocene but still reflect its mindset: a dualist thinking that sets a sharp boundary between \u2018us\u2019 humans and \u2018them\u2019 non-humans. However, the limitations of this mindset are evident. Can \u2018we\u2019, humans, really consider ourselves independent from the \u2018non-humans\u2019? Scientists and scholars have described the many ways in which humans, other species and the ecosystems are interdependent (Meynen, 2021; Oliver, 2020). From biological and psychological perspectives, individuality is an illusion (Oliver, 2020). While specificity and unicity matter, it is of outmost importance to acknowledge that we are\u00a0"
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"plaintext": "The scale of change is unprecedented. Scientists warn of a sixth mass extinction event that could lead to the disappearance of many life forms by the end of the century (Ripple et al., 2017). A recent estimate demonstrates the impact that humans have had on biodiversity: of total mammal biomass, humans account for 36% and our livestock accounts for 60%, with wild mammals accounting for only 4% (Bar-On et al., 2018). The Earth is experiencing an exceptionally rapid loss of biodiversity: 75% of terrestrial and 66% of marine environments are \u2018severely altered\u2019 by human actions (IPBES, 2019). The rapid decline in biodiversity is also inextricably connected with climate change. In the words of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), \u2018they share underlying drivers, they interact and can have cascading and complex effects that impact people\u2019s good quality of life and compromise societal goals\u2019 (P\u00f6rtner et al., 2021).",
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"text": "The scale of change is unprecedented. Scientists warn of a sixth mass extinction event that could lead to the disappearance of many life forms by the end of the century (Ripple et al., 2017). A recent estimate demonstrates the impact that humans have had on biodiversity: of total mammal biomass, humans account for 36% and our livestock accounts for 60%, with wild mammals accounting for only 4% (Bar-On et al., 2018). The Earth is experiencing an exceptionally rapid loss of biodiversity: 75% of terrestrial and 66% of marine environments are \u2018severely altered\u2019 by human actions (IPBES, 2019). The rapid decline in biodiversity is also inextricably connected with climate change. In the words of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), \u2018they share underlying drivers, they interact and can have cascading and complex effects that impact people\u2019s good quality of life and compromise societal goals\u2019 (P\u00f6rtner et al., 2021)."
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"text": "\u00a0emissions and are repositories of undiscovered medicines. The Brundtland report and the subsequent Earth Summit and Rio Declaration (UN, 1992a) marked a turning point for institutional mindsets in the Anthropocene. The dominant thinking changed from protecting nature against humans, as it were, to protecting nature to promote human development. This change made it politically possible to develop more ambitious international policies with respect to biodiversity (such as the Aichi Targets of the Convention on Biological Diversity) and sustainable development in general (notably the UN Millennium Development Goals and later the Sustainable Development Goals). This way of thinking has recently been challenged by the IPBES, which argues that, to address the biodiversity crisis and achieve Sustainable Development Goals, policymaking needs to emphasise the wide range of nature\u2019s values that go beyond market values (IPBES, 2022a; 2022b)."
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"plaintext": "Conservation was the first institutional response to the alteration and destruction of nature caused by human expansion. Conservation is still a cornerstone of environmental governance, but its strong point is also its limitation: it considers the issue from the perspective of human, anthropocentric interest rather than the bio- or ecocentric concern for conserving \u2018pure\u2019 nature. Thus, if human health, survival or well-being are perceived to be at stake, conservation policies tend to be difficult to justify politically. At the same time, the history of conservation is filled with cases of human rights violations, with forced evictions and displacement of indigenous peoples and local communities in the name of marine and terrestrial conservation being reported worldwide (Tauli-Corpuz et al., 2018).",
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"text": "Philosophy may help us overcome the distinction between \u2018us\u2019 and \u2018them\u2019 and thereby provide compelling reasons to protect nature and its biodiversity. Oriental philosophical schools and religions have long traditions of going beyond dualities such as \u2018us and them\u2019, and the line can be drawn from the contemporary Chinese concept of \u2018ecological civilisation\u2019 and all the way back to Daoist classics written more than 2,000 years ago (Doyle, 2021). Among more recent ideas, we find the vision of exiting the Anthropocene and entering the Symbiocene (Albrecht, 2015), an age in which humans base action on the understanding that we have symbiotic relationships with other species and the entire biosphere. Our current social and economic systems have so far prospered because they have established strong and stable patterns of exploiting other species and fellow human beings. However, the other species exploited are our symbionts. When harming others and the environment, we may ultimately harm ourselves (Table 1)."
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"text": "Scaling up, all living organisms and their ecosystems are profoundly interconnected and interdependent in terms of matter and energy, for example, at the most basic level, through the nutrient cycles of the biosphere. Human health, other species\u2019 health and planetary health are intertwined (Meynen, 2021), an insight captured by the \u2018one health' concept (WHO, 2023). The biologists Lynn Margulis and James Lovelock even suggested that planet Earth could be viewed as a supra-organism in their Gaia hypothesis. While this hypothesis remains scientifically controversial, it has directed attention to the many finely regulated cycles and networks of the biosphere, and how human survival depends on ecosystem health."
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"plaintext": "The philosopher Arne N\u00e6ss \u2014 one of the founders of deep ecology \u2014 was highly influenced by the Indian principle of ahimsa, non-violence. N\u00e6ss postulated that the development of a mature personality depends on being able to identify with others \u2014 first one\u2019s family, then other humans, but also animals and other living beings (N\u00e6ss, 1995). This is what N\u00e6ss called one\u2019s ecological self, not to be confused with the narrow ego . If this is so, the \u2018living as nature\u2019 \u2018life frame\u2019 highlighted by IPBES, of oneness and identification, is a necessary ingredient in the development of what N\u00e6ss called the ecological self and a mature personality. From this perspective, the opposition between self-interest and caring for others is misleading. Furthermore, caring for others may be beneficial for oneself because we are all interdependent. Self-interest, in this view, includes care for others.",
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"text": " highlighted by IPBES, of oneness and identification, is a necessary ingredient in the development of what N\u00e6ss called the ecological self and a mature personality. From this perspective, the opposition between self-interest and caring for others is misleading. Furthermore, caring for others may be beneficial for oneself because we are all interdependent. Self-interest, in this view,\u00a0"
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"text": "Despite these early concerns, humanity continued to move into the Anthropocene at increasing speed. In particular, the period since the 1950s \u2014 also known as the \u2018Great Acceleration\u2019 (Steffen et al., 2015b) \u2014 has seen unprecedented and accelerating human-induced global change. The destruction of natural habitats, widespread damage to ecosystems and the extinction of animals and plants have been scientifically documented beyond any doubt. The same is true for ongoing climate change and the substantial alteration in biogeochemical flows. Scientists incessantly repeat this message (EEA, 2019; IPBES, 2019; IPCC, 2022). Yet knowledge alone is not sufficient for action. The Great Acceleration continues (see Figure 1)."
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