Emissions and energy use in large combustion plants in Europe

Between 2004 and 2024, emissions from large combustion plants in the EU fell sharply: sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and dust by more than 94%, and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) by 73%. Fossil fuel consumption is now almost half of its 2004 level, as coal has been replaced by cleaner and more climate‑friendly energy sources. Further declines are expected as policies tighten and renewables and cleaner fuels become increasingly widespread.

Figure 1. Emission of dust, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide from large combustion plants in the EU-27

Emissions from large combustion plants (LCPs) decreased significantly in the EU during 2004–2024: sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and dust by over 94%, and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) by 74%. Since 2016, this progress has been driven mainly by two factors: the full implementation of the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED)—in particular compliance with the Best Available Techniques (BAT) conclusions from August 2021—and the steady decline in fossil fuel consumption, especially coal.

In 2024, 3 262 LCPs were operational, with 75% aligned with the LCP BAT conclusions. Although total installed capacity has remained relatively stable since 2020 (‑2%), total energy consumption of LCPs in 2024 was 26% lower than in 2019. Over the same period, operating hours decreased by 7%; currently, only one third of EU LCPs operate for more than 75% of the time.

This trend reflects the documented decrease in energy production in the EU from solid fuels and the rise of renewable as primary energy source. Additionally, the final energy consumption from industry decreased by 21.7% from 2007. This shift is linked to the adoption of more energy-efficient production methods, the closure of inefficient units, and a move toward less energy-intensive activities. Other contributing factors include international fuel price volatility and the stagnation of energy-intense industry - key consumers of electricity generated by LCPs.

Coal consumption is now only one-third of its 2010 levels, and natural gas use has declined by 20% in the saa continued transition towards cleaner fuels, supporting the EU’s ambition to become climate‑neutral by 2050.me period. These reductions, combined with IED compliance, explain the emissions reductions achieved to date. Further decreases in emissions level are expected in the coming years as stricter IED permit condition and climate-change mitigation policies drive a continued transition towards cleaner fuels, supporting the EU’s ambition to become climate‑neutral by 2050.

Figure 2. Fuel consumption in the EU-27, per fuel type

LCPs fuel consumption fell by 44% between 2004 and 2024 (Figure 2). Most of this decline occurred after 2010, driven by a sharp reduction in fossil fuel use (‑45% since 2010), largely due to a 66% decrease in coal consumption. Over the same period, biomass use increased steadily, with total consumption in 2024 more than 60% higher than in 2010; despite this growth, biomass still accounts for less than 10% of the sector’s total energy input

A sharp decrease in coal consumption between 2023 and 2024 effectively offset the temporary rebound observed in 2022, which had been triggered by the war in Ukraine and the resulting spike in natural gas prices. This shift reflects the impact of EU climate policies and the continued transition towards renewable energy sources. Three countries—Germany, Italy and Poland—were responsible for 82% of the reduction in coal consumption over the period 2022–2024.

Supporting information

Definition

This indicator tracks trends for the so-called Large Combustion Plants' (LCPs) emissions of SO₂, NO_x and dust, as well as the evolution of the energy mix used in these plants since 2004. LCPs comprise industrial combustion plants with a total rated thermal input equal to or greater than 50MW.

The geographical coverage comprises the 27 EU Member States (EU-27) (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden).

The temporal coverage is 2004-2024. Data for the period 2004-2015 were reported under Directive 2001/80/EC on large combustion plants, while for 2016 onwards they were reported under Directive 2010/75/EU on industrial emissions. The requirements are not identical, and it is expected for data from 2016 onwards to have a slightly broader scope in terms of plants included.

Methodology

Methodology for indicator calculation

Queries are applied to the Industrial Emissions Database to extract and aggregate emissions reported individually for each LCP in Europe to produce Figure 1. In a similar manner, queries extract and aggregate fuel use data to produce Figure 2.

Figure 1 : Emissions are indexed with reference to 2004 levels. The exact formula is: emissions of pollutant x for the current year/emissions for pollutant x in 2004) × 100.

Figure 2: Total fuel consumptions per type are summed and provided in the graph. As the data were not reported in the same way before and after 2016, the category 'coal' is the result of the sum of all solid fuels reported.

Methodology for gap filling

Czechia, Lithuania, Malta and Slovakia did not report any data from 2023: gap-filling performed with 2022 data. Cyprus did not report data for 2024: gap-filling performed with 2023 data.

Methodology references

No methodology references available.

Policy/environmental relevance

Justification for indicator selection

No rationale has been identified for this indicator.

Scientific references

No rationale references available.

Context description

Anthropogenic emissions of SO₂, NO_x and dust all contribute to air quality problems in Europe. Excess deposition of sulphur and nitrogen compounds can lead to disturbances in the functioning and structure of ecosystems by, for example, causing the acidification of soils and waters as well as, in the case of nitrogen, the eutrophication of nutrient-poor ecosystems such as grasslands.

LCPs use large amounts of fuels, mostly fossil fuels, to produce useful forms of energy. These plants inevitably generate a number of residues, waste products and emissions to all environmental media (air, water and soil). Emissions from LCPs constitute a significant proportion of total anthropogenic emissions and are considered one of the main environmental pressures from LCPs.

In that context, policy has regulated these plants for decades now. Between 2004 and 2015, two pieces of EU law were in place: the LCP Directive and the IPPC Directive. This EU legislation imposed specific limit values on emissions of NO_x, SO₂ and dust from plants with a thermal rated input equal to or greater than 50MW. Since 1 January 2016, this legislation has been replaced by .

The aim of EU policy on LCPs is to reduce emissions to air, water and land, including measures related to waste, to achieve a high level of protection of the environment as a whole. The focus with regard to LCPs is to reduce emissions of acidifying pollutants, particles and ozone precursors while also covering other environmental concerns (e.g. mercury emissions).

Targets

No targets have been specified.

Methodology uncertainty

This indicator covers the EU-27 countries. However, there are no data for Croatia for 2004-2009. The data for Croatia have not been gap filled, and in the years of reporting Croatia contributed less than 1% of emissions and fuel consumption to the EU-27 total. This lack of data is thus considered a minor distortion of the overall trend.

As indicated, reporting requirements were not identical before and after 2016, which is also considered a minor distortion of the trend.

Data sets uncertainty

Although reporting requirements began in 2004, it is possible that the data for the first reported period (2004-2006) contain some gaps.

Rationale uncertainty

No uncertainty has been specified.

Data sources and providers

Metadata

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Emissions and energy use in large combustion plants in Europe

Figure 1. Emission of dust, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide from large combustion plants in the EU-27

Figure 2. Fuel consumption in the EU-27, per fuel type

Supporting information

Methodology for indicator calculation

Methodology for gap filling

Methodology references

Justification for indicator selection

Scientific references

Context description

Targets

Related policy documents

Methodology uncertainty

Data sets uncertainty

Rationale uncertainty

Metadata

References and footnotes