Extensive livestock systems and nature in Europe

This briefing supports the development of the EU’s livestock strategy and common agricultural policy, as well as the implementation of the EU’s biodiversity strategy for 2030 and the Nature Restoration Regulation. It also recognises the United Nations’ declaration of 2026 as the International Year of Rangelands and Pastoralists.

Most of the EU’s livestock production is based on intensive methods that either do not involve grazing or do so only at high stocking densities. A large proportion of these intensive systems are concentrated in the EU’s most productive areas, whereas extensive grazing-based systems are mostly found in less productive, more remote regions. The location and type of livestock systems may therefore not always match the distribution of grazing-dependent habitats.

Intensive farming can create substantial environmental pressures; this is discussed in a range of publications, as, for example, in the latest report by the European Environment Agency (EEA) on the state of the environment (Europe’s environment 2025). This briefing focuses on extensive grazing systems and the role they play in maintaining and restoring Europe’s semi-natural habitats and managing wildfire risk. It is underpinned by an EEA study on managing and restoring semi-natural habitats (EEA, 2026). This study estimates suitable grazing densities for the grazed habitats in Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive and the share of total EU ruminant livestock to manage these.

The role of grazing in Europe’s ecology

Grazing animals have played a central role in ecosystems around the world for several hundred thousand years (Søndergaard et al., 2025). They help create structurally diverse vegetation, with a range of dense and open forest types as well as shrub- and grass-dominated areas. Grazing has fostered and maintains grasslands and their associated wildflowers. Large grazers create open ground by trampling as well as digging for food, and their dung is a key food source for many insects and birds.

Since the last Ice Age, human hunting has eliminated Europe’s populations of large wild grazers (e.g. aurochs, bison and horses). Their role in European ecosystems was replaced by ancient domestic livestock as farming spread and human populations grew. These extensive livestock systems created diverse, semi-open landscapes similar to those produced by large wild grazers (Bruun & Fritzbøger, 2002; Stevens et al., 2022).

Grazing by domestic livestock (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats and horses) has thus long shaped European landscapes and habitats (EEA, 2026). Nomadic, transhumant and stationary grazing systems enabled food production complementary to the growing of crops, as animals can use different vegetation types and areas throughout the year.

Traditional livestock and cropping systems maintained — and even increased — species richness in European landscapes, as illustrated in Figure 1, by increasing habitat diversity. When farming (and forestry) intensifies, however, biodiversity declines to very low values with the loss in habitat diversity. If farming shifts again to low-intensity practices this can help restore species and habitat diversity (Bunce et al., 2009).

Figure 1. Relationship between land use practices over time and species richness

The agro-economic and environmental starting point for the EEA study

European farming systems have changed fundamentally over the past 100 years. In the most part, farming has become a fully mechanised process, with artificial fertilisers and pesticides and other modern technologies dominating production both on and off the field. In addition, farms have become far more specialised; average farm and field sizes have significantly increased; and the area of landscape features such as hedgerows and ponds has significantly diminished in most farmland areas.

Livestock production remains an important part of farming in Europe but has also changed fundamentally due to modernisation and socio-economic pressures. Transhumant (i.e. seasonally driven) and mobile shepherded grazing systems have declined massively over the past 150 years and grazing in less-productive areas (e.g. on mountains) is being abandoned (Nori and Farinella, 2020). Livestock production is now increasingly concentrated in productive lowland areas. Animals are often kept in barns at much higher stocking densities than before, with their feeding at least partially dependent on external sources.

Modern farming systems that keep livestock housed for most — or all — of the year are a key factor in habitat and species decline. Where grazing is still practised, it occurs on fertilised pastures and generally at high stocking densities. All-year indoor housing systems deprive a wide range of insect populations (e.g. dung beetles, hoverflies and certain butterfly species) of manure as a food source. This trend and other land use factors are leading to a decline in insect populations that affects the wider food chain, for example insect-eating birds and bats.

The trend in livestock rearing towards larger and more specialised farms and more intensive systems is driven by several structural factors. These include the economic pressure to increase productivity, labour constraints in extensive systems, changing market structures, lack of profitability and the abandonment of farming in marginal areas.

These developments have contributed to the decline of traditional grazing systems across many European regions. EU analysis showed that between 2005 and 2020 the number of EU farms fell by 37% (from 14.4 million to 9.1 million across the EU-27), with livestock specialists and mixed farms affected the most (EC, 2026). Among extensive and mixed-livestock farms specifically, this decline was even larger — their numbers fell by more than 70% between 2010 and 2020 (EC, 2026). The decline in low-intensity livestock systems not only has socio-economic consequences for rural areas, but also strongly affects rural environments in terms of habitat management, cultural heritage and wildfire risk mitigation.

The dual trends of agricultural intensification and land abandonment apply significant pressure to both habitats and the species found within them (EEA, 2020), alongside other environmental impacts (EEA, 2025). Two-thirds of the EU’s semi-natural habitats dependent on biodiversity-friendly agricultural management (Halada et al., 2011) were classified as having a ‘bad’ conservation status in the most recent State of Nature report (EEA, 2020) (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Conservation status of habitats dependent on agricultural management

Given the critical role that grazing livestock plays in maintaining Europe’s landscapes and habitats, it is important to analyse how extensive livestock systems contribute to the EU’s nature conservation and restoration goals. Developing such knowledge was a key aim of the study summarised in this briefing.

Key results of the EEA study on maintaining semi-natural habitats via grazing

EEA’s study on ‘Managing and restoring semi-natural habitats – a review of the links with extensive grazing systems’ provides a detailed review of how different grazing approaches influence habitat and species diversity (EEA, 2026). Grassland habitats provide a key example of the need for extensive grazing (or mowing) in Europe to help conserve many threatened species. For example, 92% of the butterfly species included in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive depend on extensively managed grasslands. Furthermore, meadow birds under legal protection that are dependent on permanent grassland habitats make up a high proportion of all protected birds listed in Annex I of the EU Birds Directive. Finally, European semi-natural habitats support a large proportion of the continent’s endemic species — 18.1% of Europe’s endemic vascular plants are found in grassland ecosystems and 15.5% in heaths and shrub habitats (Habel et al., 2013).

Previous work sponsored by the EEA produced an overview of 63 semi-natural habitat types listed in Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive that depend on, or which can benefit from, agricultural activities (Halada et al., 2011). These habitats include a range of vegetation types — e.g. grasslands, heathlands and wetlands — that rely mainly on grazing and, in some cases, mowing (see Figure 3).

A large proportion of these grazing-dependent Annex I habitats are located within the Natura 2000 network. In many sites, extensive livestock grazing is already a key management tool for maintaining habitat structure and species diversity. Understanding the grazing needs of these habitats can therefore support both Natura 2000 management and the implementation of broader EU biodiversity policies.

Figure 3. Approximate extent of farming-dependent Annex I habitats by habitat group

As Figure 3 shows, habitats on Annex I that benefit from grazing or mowing occupy a substantial area. According to the most recent reporting by EU Member States under the EU Habitats Directive, such habitats cover at least 35 million hectares, equivalent to about 22% of the total official EU-27 farmland area (EEA, 2026).

To estimate the grazing capacity needed for habitat maintenance, it is necessary to know the area that needs to be grazed as well as the stocking density per hectare required by different habitat types. The EEA study employed an expert-led approach to produce an estimate of the best stocking density for maintaining key semi-natural habitats by consulting botanical specialists and grazing ecologists across Europe.

This analysis covered the 63 habitats identified by Halada et al. (2011) and provides estimates of suitable stocking rates for each of these habitats as averages over the grazing season. The results are differentiated by biogeographic region and show a wide range of suitable grazing densities. These are strongly influenced by soil productivity, rainfall and temperature patterns and vary from 0.1 to more than 1.0 livestock units per hectare.

Combining data on grazing areas with suitable stocking rates per grazed Annex I habitat allows for the estimation of the total number of grazing livestock required to manage the EU’s grazing-dependent habitats. This estimate is called the ‘national Halada grazing need’ in the EEA study, after the Halada et al. paper. The EEA study compared this national grazing need with the national ruminant livestock herd that is potentially available for grazing (i.e. cattle, sheep and goats). From this, we can estimate what share of national ruminant livestock would be needed to maintain Annex I habitats dependent on grazing (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Approach to comparing Annex I grazing needs with national grazing capacity

The EEA’s analysis suggests that, put in absolute numbers, the total grazing livestock needed to maintain Annex I grazing-dependent habitats is significant — around 7.8 million livestock units (LU) across the EU‑27. This represents about a 12.6% share of the total number of the EU-27’s ruminant livestock in 2020 (at roughly 63 million LU).

The EEA study team has estimated that about 10-15% of the EU-27’s total ruminant livestock would be sufficient to manage the area of grazing-dependent Annex I habitats, if distributed appropriately.

There is wide variation in the share of livestock different countries would require, as shown in Table 1. However, the potential contribution of livestock to habitat management depends not only on the total number of animals, but also on where they are located. In several regions of Europe, livestock production has become concentrated in highly productive areas, whereas grazing-dependent habitats are often located in mountainous, marginal or remote landscapes where livestock numbers have declined. Addressing this spatial mismatch is therefore an important challenge for both nature conservation and agricultural policy.

Eight countries have large areas of semi-natural vegetation where a large share of their national ruminant livestock (20-40% or even higher) would be required to manage their estimated area of grazed Annex I habitats. This group comprises mainly Mediterranean countries and those with a large share of mountainous and remote areas. At the other end sits a group of ten EU-27 countries where grazing needs are at or below 5% of their ruminant livestock. This group comprises Malta, Cyprus and countries in central and northwestern Europe.

A further nine countries require either 5-10% or 10-20% of their national ruminant livestock to manage grazing-dependent Annex I habitats. These countries have mixed characteristics, but all contain substantial areas of semi-natural habitats in need of management.

Deeper analysis based on spatial data would be needed to understand whether the share of livestock that could graze these semi-natural habitats have the right geographical distribution to be effective for such maintenance.

Table 1. A comparison of national livestock herds (cattle, sheep and goats) and the calculated seasonal grazing requirement of grazed Annex I habitats (in livestock units)

* Indicates that the grazing need estimates for this country may be too high.
# Portugal is placed in this group based on land cover data, rather than Article 17 reporting.

It should be noted that both the estimate of the EU-27’s grazing need and the country-level shares presented in Table 1 are preliminary and carry significant uncertainty. The share of ruminant livestock that is likely to be required to manage grazing-dependent Annex I habitats is both driven by the estimated extent of these habitat types and the overall size of the national ruminant livestock population. As stated above, the spatial distribution of different types of livestock systems also influences opportunities for grazing Annex I habitats.

It should also be noted that countries can have a large area of grazing-dependent habitats to manage and a large ruminant livestock population (e.g. Germany) — and this would result in a similar ‘livestock requirement’ in percentage terms as in countries with both a small Annex I habitat area and a low ruminant livestock population (e.g. Malta).

Lastly, these grazing need estimates relate to the existing area of Annex I habitats only and do not take into account the additional grazing needs that could arise from setting national nature restoration goals under the EU Nature Restoration Regulation.

Further work and outlook

This briefing presents the results of an analysis that connects data from environmental reporting and agricultural statistics with expert estimates on suitable stocking rates to maintain grazing-dependent EU Annex I habitats. This helps us understand the links between extensive grazing and nature conservation; however, some uncertainty remains.

The background study (EEA, 2026) discusses a range of these uncertainties in detail and suggests steps that can be taken to improve the foundation of the analysis. This includes adding data on the spatial distribution of different types of livestock and the improved monitoring of grassland areas and other vegetation types. Improved knowledge about the links between livestock systems and habitat management can support more targeted policy measures, including agricultural support schemes as well as Natura 2000 site management and restoration planning, helping maintain or restore grazing where it could deliver the greatest environmental benefits.

Overall, livestock grazing capacity is only one factor in determining the success of grazing as a nature conservation tool. The following four components of grazing management are vital for deciding the impact of livestock on habitats:

• type of livestock used (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, horses, wild herbivores, either alone or in combination);
• grazing period (spring, summer, autumn or winter);
• grazing regime applied (e.g. permanent or rotational grazing);
• stocking density in relation to habitat productivity and weather conditions.

Different habitat types react differently to the same grazing practices. Finding the optimal grazing regime for each habitat type requires careful consideration in dialogue with grazing experts, farmers and ecologists.

In addition, the work of shepherds and livestock farmers is critical in managing livestock for the sustainable use of the land and for conserving threatened European habitats — and deserves more recognition.

The socio-economic prospects for extensive livestock systems are very challenging (EC, 2026). Their viability can be improved if public policies adequately reward their contribution to public goods such as nature conservation objectives, the maintenance of landscape and cultural heritage, and the mitigation of wildfire risk. Making extensive livestock farming more economically and environmentally sustainable also requires changes in the overall European food system. An EEA report discusses opportunities within the current food system for achieving European Union sustainability goals: Transforming Europe's food system — Assessing the EU policy mix.

Improving the environmental profile of agricultural production requires a range of approaches. These vary from achieving higher resource efficiency in intensive systems, to maintaining and expanding nature-friendly systems, and adopting agro-ecological principles or other innovative approaches where feasible. Opportunities for preserving nature in agricultural landscapes are reviewed in a recent EEA briefing: ‘Solutions for restoring Europe’s agricultural ecosystems’.

The analysis presented in this briefing could be refined by integrating additional national data and analysing the connections between extensive grazing systems, the sector’s emission profile and ecosystem services (e.g. Manzano et al., 2025).

Conclusions

• About one-third of all habitat types listed in Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive depend on extensive grazing for their maintenance. Restoring such habitats under the EU Nature Restoration Regulation will require that suitable grazing regimes are established, whether by domestic or wild grazers.
• Grazing by domestic livestock can be an important nature conservation tool. However, suitable stocking rates and grazing regimes vary substantially between different habitat types. Careful planning in dialogue between various stakeholders is therefore needed to ensure livestock grazing effectively supports nature conservation targets, within and outside of Natura 2000 areas.
• The share of total EU livestock required to maintain habitats of EU interest by grazing lies at around 10-15% of the EU’s current total ruminant livestock herd. This means that a relatively limited share of the national ruminant livestock population is needed in most EU countries.
• The potential benefit from domestic livestock for the conservation of grazing-dependent habitats relies on a range of factors. These include the livestock types and breeds available, their geographic proximity to these habitats, and the actual grazing practices employed.
• Extensive livestock grazing systems are strongly declining across Europe for socio-economic and structural reasons. There is significant public interest in understanding how improving the viability of such systems can help achieve EU nature conservation targets and manage wildfire risk.
• Substantial further investment in data on the distribution of habitats and the monitoring of grazing and grassland areas, as well as in the analysis of the grazing practices of different farm types, are required to develop a solid foundation to properly understand current extensive grazing systems and their role in achieving EU nature conservation and restoration goals.
• Several links between extensive livestock systems, the management of semi-natural habitats and the provision of ecosystem services have not been discussed here. They include, but are not limited to, carbon storage and sequestration, adaptation to climate change, recreation, fire risk management and water flow regulation.
• Further research on the socio-economic viability of different extensive farming systems would also be helpful. This should focus on different habitat types and compare the efficiency of different support mechanisms (both income support and more targeted agri-environmental support) in compliance with the grazing practices required.