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PM2.5 particles are emitted mainly by the combustion of solid fuels for domestic heating, industrial activities and transport (EEA, 2025a). As with PM10, they can also come from natural sources and can form in the atmosphere. Agricultural NH3 emissions significantly contribute to the secondary formation of PM2.5.
For compliance assessments, Member States can discount the contribution of natural sources to the total concentrations of PM2.5 (under certain principles or conditions), as these sources are out of their control. In this status analysis, however, they have not been subtracted from any of the levels given.
The EU has set ALVs for PM2.5 and, from 2030 onwards a DLV. In contrast, the WHO already has both long- (annual) and short-term (daily) guideline levels. These are given in Table 2.
Table 2. EU air quality standards and WHO AQG levels for PM2.5
Current EU standard | 2030 EU standard | WHO 2021 AQG level | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Averaging period | Limit value | Limit value | Not to be exceeded more than | AQG level | Comments |
24 hours | 25μg/m3 | 18 days/year | 15μg/m3 | 99th percentile (3-4 days/year) | |
1 calendar year | 25μg/m3 | 10μg/m3 | 5μg/m3 |
The EEA has received valid 2024 PM2.5 data from 37 of the reporting countries (all, excluding Albania and Liechtenstein). Preliminary data for 2025 have been received from all the participating countries except Albania, Kosovo, Liechtenstein, Montenegro, Serbia and Türkiye.
Annual limit values
PM2.5 concentrations above the current EU ALV were seen in Türkiye and some of the western Balkan countries (Map 4 and Figure 4). As for PM10, this is explained mainly by solid fuel use, together with relatively old vehicle fleets.
In 2024, 23 stations (1% of the total) registered concentrations above the current EU ALV. One of them was located in the Member State of Romania, while the others were in Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia (six each), Serbia and Türkiye (five each). Of these, 91% were urban and 4% suburban. In contrast, 92.5% of PM2.5 reporting stations registered concentrations above the WHO annual AQG level; 62.4% of these stations were urban and 24.5% suburban. All stations in Estonia and Iceland had concentrations below the WHO AQG level.
In 2025, 17 stations (1% of the total) registered concentrations above the current EU ALV. They were located in four Member States (Italy (three); Croatia, Denmark and Poland (one each)) and two other reporting countries (North Macedonia (nine); and Bosnia and Herzegovina (two)).
Overall, 60.7% of the reporting stations have already registered annual concentrations below the 2030 EU ALV. All the stations in six Member States (Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Luxembourg and Sweden) and those in Andorra, Iceland, Montenegro and Switzerland had concentrations below the 2030 ALV in 2024.
Map 4. Concentrations of PM2.5 in 2024 and 2025 in relation to EU annual limit values and WHO AQG level
Figure 4. PM2.5 concentrations in 2024 by country in relation to the EU annual limit values and WHO annual AQG level
Daily limit value
Overall, in 2024, 67% of the reporting stations registered concentrations of PM2.5 below the 2030 target DLV (Map 5). All the reporting stations in ten Member States (Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal and Sweden) and those in Andorra, Iceland, Montenegro and Switzerland had concentrations below the 2030 DLV.
Map 5. Concentrations of PM2.5 in 2024 in relation to the 2030 EU daily limit value
Figure 5 provides a summary of the PM2.5 stations above EU air quality standards and WHO AQG levels.
Figure 5. Percentage of reporting monitoring stations registering PM2.5 concentrations above the EU limit values and WHO AQG levels
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