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6.4. Suspended particulates (TSP/SPM)
6.4.1. Behaviour, effects, emissions
Particulate matter
Airborne particulate matter represents a complex mixture of organic and inorganic substances, covering a wide range of diameters, from <0.1 µm and up to some 100 µm. Mass and composition tend to divide into two principal groups: coarse particles larger than 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter, and fine particles smaller than 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter. The smaller particles contain the secondarily formed aerosols (gas to particle conversion), combustion particles and recondensed organic and metal vapours. The bulk of fine particulate mass comprise particles of diameter range 0.1-0.5 µm. The larger particles usually contain earth Crystal materials and fugitive dust from roads and industries. The acid component of particulate matter, and most of its mutagenic activity, is generally contained in the fine fraction, although in fog some coarse acid droplets are also present.
Important parts of the "secondary aerosol" are sulphate particles (important for acid deposition and visibility reduction on the regional scale), and organics-containing particles as a result of photochemical reactions (important in large urban areas with photochemical pollution).
"Suspended particulate matter" is measured and characterised in various ways:
Major sources of primary particles are industrial processes, road traffic, power plants, domestic burning (coal, wood, etc.), incineration, and resuspension of road and construction dust. Particulate matter is removed from the atmosphere by wet and dry deposition.
Short term health effects of exposure to combined SO2, black smoke and particulates include increased mortality, morbidity and deficits in pulmonary function. Some of the "lowest-observed effect" levels for short term exposure to particulate matter are: excess mortality ~500 µg/m3 (smoke); increased acute respiratory morbidity (adults) ~250 µg/m3 (smoke); decrements in lung function (children) ~180 µg/m3 (total suspended particulates)/110 µg/m3 (thoracic particles). Smoke levels of up to 1,500 µg/m3 occurred in the 1952 London smog.
Other environmental effects include the soiling of exposed surfaces, impairment of visibility, potential modification of climate and contribution to acid deposition.
6.4.2. Air Quality Limit and Guide Values
EU Limit values for suspended particulates are given in Table 6.14.
Table 6.14: EU Limit values for suspended particulates (gravimetric
method) (µg/m3).
EU Council Directive 80/779/EEC.
Limit Values | Mean of 24h values | 95 percentile of 24h values |
Year | 150 | 300 |
WHO Guideline values for combined exposure to SO2 and particulate matter are given in Table 6.10 in section 6.3.2. These values are 24h maximum values of 120 µg/m3 TSP and 70 µg/m3 TP (Thoracic particles » PM10).
6.4.3. Urban and local TSP/SPM concentrations
Concentrations
In Appendix B TSP/SPM data from 14 countries are given. The stations are ranged according to the 95 percentile daily values. The stations with the highest values are given in Table 6.15. Also the maximum and mean values are given, if available.
Table 6.15 and Figure 6.41 show the highest TSP/SPM levels in Southern and Eastern Europe. In Western Europe concentrations are low and do not vary so much from country to country, except for higher values in some German cities.
Data from the selected cities in Figure 5.1/Table 5.2 are shown in Figure 6.42-Figure 6.44. These figures give the mean, 95 percentile and maximum values based on 24h values.
Table 6.15: 24 h maximum, 95 percentile and mean SPM values for 1993 for European cities ranged according to the 95 percentile values (µg/m3).
Figure 6.41: 24 h maximum, 95 percentile and mean TSP/SPM values for 1993 for selected stations and cities (µg/m3).
Figure 6.42: SPM mean values in selected cities (µg/m3).
Figure 6.43: SPM 95 percentile values based on 24h values in selected cities (µg/m3).
Figure 6.44: SPM maximum 24h values in selected cities (µg/m3).
Exceedances
Table 6.16 shows stations with exceedances of EU Limit values for TSP/SPM (mean 150 µg/m3 , and 95 percentile 300 µg/m3 , 24h values). These values are very high compared to the WHO Guideline values. EU Limit values are exceeded at stations in Italy and Portugal.
Table 6.17 show exceedances of WHO Guideline values for PM10 and SPM. The SPM maximum 24h value are exceeded in many countries. Especially high values are measured in the Czech Republic and Portugal.
UK has reported exceedances of the WHO PM10
Guideline value in major cities. PM10 is not commonly measured in
Europe yet. The WHO Guideline value of
70 µg/m3 for 24h will obviously be exceeded in many countries and
cities all over Europe. The main mass fraction of particulate matter is in the <10
µm-fraction. These particles are most relevant to health effects.
Table 6.16: Exceedances of EU Limit Values for SPM.
Country |
City |
Station name |
24 h values | |
1 year | 1 year | |||
Mean >150 | P95 >300 | |||
Italy | Genova | Rimessa Amt | 170** | 336** |
Torino | Strada Aeroporto | 268 | 321 | |
Portugal | Alhandra | CN. Cimpor | 300 | |
Barreiro/Seixal | Escavadeira | 319 | ||
Paio Pires | 196 | 405 | ||
Carregado | RDP | 327 | ||
Faiel | 163 | 416 |
** Data availability <75%.
Table 6.17: Exceedances of WHO Guideline Values for PM10/SPM.
Country |
City |
Station |
WHO Guideline Values | |
PM10 | SPM | |||
Max. 24h >70 | Max. 24h >120 | |||
Austria | Graz | Mitte | 201 | |
Nord | 187 | |||
Ost | 164 | |||
Süd | 211 | |||
Süd West | 252 | |||
West | 209 | |||
Innsbruck | Olympisches Dorf | 164 | ||
Reichenau | 174 | |||
Klagenfurt | Koschatstrasse | 136 | ||
Linz | 24-er-Turm | 384 | ||
Berufschulzentrum | 233 | |||
BH-Urfahr | 301 | |||
Hauserhof | 237 | |||
Kleinmünchen | 191 | |||
ORF-Zentrum | 226 | |||
Ursulinenhof | 263 | |||
Salzburg | Itzlingen | 140 | ||
Rudolfplatz | 182 | |||
Villach | Villach | 159 | ||
Wien | Belgradplatz | 390 | ||
Floridsdorf | 240 | |||
Hietzinger Kai | 141 | |||
Hohe Warte | 250 | |||
Kaiserebersdorf | 210 | |||
Kendlerstr. | 240 | |||
Laaer Berg | 320 | |||
Stadlau | 231 | |||
Stephansplatz | 134 | |||
Taborstr. | 297 | |||
Wäringer Gürtel | 179 | |||
Czech Republic | Ostrava | Ostrava NH | 522 | |
Ostrava-Domovduch | 709 | |||
Ostrava-Fifejdy | 683 | |||
Ostrava-Poruba | 511 | |||
Ostrava-Slez.Ostrava | 506 | |||
Prague | Kobylisy | 605 | ||
Mlynárka | 485 | |||
Námesti Republiky | 455 | |||
Pocernicka | 478 | |||
Riegrovy sady | 455 | |||
Santinka | 603 | |||
Veleslavin | 588 | |||
Vysocany | 626 | |||
Výstavite | 466 |
Table 6.17 (contd.)
Country |
City |
Station |
WHO Guideline Values | |
PM10 | SPM | |||
Max. 24h >70 | Max. 24h >120 | |||
Denmark | Aalborg | Vesterbro | 224 | |
Copenhagen | Jagtvej | 252 | ||
Odense | 9154 | 248 | ||
9155 Albanigade | 212 | |||
Finland | Espoo | Luukki | 147 | |
Helsinki | Vallila | 240 | ||
Germany | Berlin | Charlottenburg | 255 | |
Frankfurter Tor | 305 | |||
Neuköllen | 228 | |||
Schöneberg | 192 | |||
Wedding | 283 | |||
Brandenburg | Brandenburg-Zentrum | 225 | ||
Cottbus | Cottbus-City | 199 | ||
Cottbus-Süd | 217 | |||
Dortmund | Dortmund-Asseln | 133 | ||
Dortmund-Hörde | 180 | |||
Dortmund-Mitte | 278 | |||
Duisburg | Duisburg-Buchholz | 183 | ||
Duisburg-Kaldenhausen | 231 | |||
Duisburg-Meidenich | 285 | |||
Duisburg-Walsum | 330 | |||
Düsseldorf | Düsseldorf-Einbrungen | 153 | ||
Düsseldorf-Genresheim | 181 | |||
Düsseldorf-Lörick | 184 | |||
Düsseldorf-Mörsenbroich | 158 | |||
Düsseldorf-Reisholz | 187 | |||
Essen | Essen-Altendorf | 298 | ||
Essen-Bredeney | 183 | |||
Essen-Leithe | 191 | |||
Essen-Ost | 239 | |||
Essen-Vogelheim | 423 | |||
Halle | Halle | 232 | ||
Hamburg | 06 LO, Lokstedt | 155 | ||
09 RA, Rahlstedt | 161 | |||
11 HO, Hochkamp | 164 | |||
12 BA, Bahrenfeld | 165 | |||
13 ST, Sternschanze | 164 | |||
14 LS, Lübecker Strasse | 175 | |||
15 HR, Horner Rennbahn | 146 | |||
18 WA, Waltershof | 196 | |||
19 SW, Steinwerder | 177 | |||
20 VE. Veddel | 185 | |||
21 BI, Billbrook | 158 | |||
26 KI, Kirchdorf | 164 | |||
27 TA, Tatenberg | 137 | |||
30 GT, Göhlbochtal | 146 |
Table 6.17 (contd.)
Country |
City |
Station |
WHO Guideline Values | |
PM10 | SPM | |||
Max. 24h >70 | Max. 24h >120 | |||
Germany (contd.) | Köln | Köln-Chorweiler | 157 | |
Köln-Riehl | 142 | |||
Köln-Rodenkirchen | 131 | |||
Köln-Vogelsang | 140 | |||
Magdeburg | Magdeburg | 166 | ||
München | Effnerplatz | 148 | ||
Johanneskirchen | 171 | |||
L.Kiesselbach-Platz | 155 | |||
Lothstrasse | 185 | |||
Pasing | 153 | |||
Stachus | 162 | |||
Nürnberg | Mögeldorf | 122 | ||
Olgastrasse | 177 | |||
Willy Brandt Platz | 152 | |||
Rostock | Rostock-Holbein Platz | 151 | ||
Saarbrücken | Saarbrücken-Stadtmitte | 144 | ||
Schwerin | Schwerin (Burmeister-Bade-Platz) | 239 | ||
Schwerin-UBA | 146 | |||
Portugal | Alhandra | CN. Cimpor | 600 | |
Escusa | 284 | |||
Marquesa | 241 | |||
Pisc. Cimpor | 287 | |||
S. Martins | 401 | |||
Area Sines | EDP/Sul | 271 | ||
Barreiro/Seixal | Arrentela | 201 | ||
Camara Municipal | 261 | |||
Casal do Marco | 272 | |||
Escavadeira | 360 | |||
Paio Pires | 479 | |||
Seixal | 330 | |||
Siderurgia | 460 | |||
Carregado | Cast. Ribatejo | 136 | ||
Faiel | 495 | |||
Ironfer | 360 | |||
RDP | 523 | |||
TAK | 536 | |||
Vinha | 231 | |||
Lisboa | Entrecampos | 210 | ||
Pego | Mouriscas | 166 | ||
Setúbal | Movauto | 333 | ||
S. Filipe | 318 | |||
Setenave | 301 | |||
Subestacao | 358 | |||
Tróia | 248 | |||
Slovakia | Bratislava | Karmenné námestic | 185 | |
Marmateyova | 213 | |||
Trnavské mýto | 181 | |||
Koice | túrova | 257 |
Table 6.17 (contd.)
Country |
City |
Station |
WHO Guideline Values | |
PM10 | SPM | |||
Max. 24h >70 | Max. 24h >120 | |||
Spain | Barcelona | Molina Pl. | 174 | |
Moncada | 316 | |||
Poblé nov. | 167 | |||
Madrid | Carlos V | 202 | ||
Cuatro Caminos | 174 | |||
Plaza Castilla | 166 | |||
Plaza España | 165 | |||
Villaverde | 151 | |||
United Kingdom | Belfast | Belfast centre | 120 | |
Birmingham | Birmingham centre | 102 | ||
Bristol | Bristol centre | 81 | ||
Cardiff | Cardiff centre | 89 | ||
Leeds | Leeds centre | 96 | ||
Liverpool | Liverpool centre | 163 | ||
London | London Bloomsbury | 100 | ||
Newcastle | Newcastle centre | 79 |
Trends
Figure 6.45-Figure 6.48 show trends in TSP/SPM data on an annual basis for selected stations in different countries. The figures are not quite comparable because different parameters are given. The figures from Aalborg and Madrid (from APIS) do not give the 95 percentile, which is requested by the EU Council Directive, but instead the 98 percentile. German and Swiss data are taken from national reports. Mean values from the Ruhr area, Düsseldorf and Köln/Bonn are mean values from several stations in several cities.
German and Swiss data show a slight decrease in TSP/SPM mean values over the last 10-20 years. In Aalborg, Denmark maximum and 98 percentile values are more reduced than mean values.
Figure 6.45: TSP/SPM trend in Aalborg, Denmark 1982-1994 and Madrid, Spain 1986-1993 (µg/m3). APIS data.
Figure 6.46: TSP/SPM in Bremen, Germany 1987-1993 (µg/m3). Data from Bremen State report.
Figure 6.47: TSP/SPM trend in Switzerland 1984-1993 (µg/m3). Data from national report.
Figure 6.48: TSP/SPM trend in Nordrhein/Westfalen 1974-1993 (µg/m3). Mean values for several stations and cities from Nordrhein/Westfalen State report.
For references, please go to https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/2-9167-057-X/page021.html or scan the QR code.
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