5.1 - Introduction5.2 - The Water Resource5.2.1 - The hydrological cycle5.2.2 - Water resources5.2.3 - River flow characteristics in Europe5.2.3.1 - Average annual runoff5.2.3.2 - Seasonal river flow regimes5.2.3.3 - Inter-annual variability5.2.3.4 - Human influences on river flow regimes5.2.3.5 - Main sources of water abstraction5.3 - Groundwater5.3.1 - Characteristics and distribution5.3.2 - Recharge and loads5.3.3 - Groundwater quantity5.3.3.1 - Abstraction5.3.3.2 - Potential wetland damage5.3.3.3 - Raising of groundwater levels5.3.4 - Groundwater pollution5.3.4.1 - Point sources5.3.4.2 - Nitrate leaching5.3.4.3 - Pesticides5.3.4.4 - Acidification5.4 - Rivers, Reservoirs and Lakes5.4.1 - Introduction5.4.2 - Characteristics of European rivers, reservoirs and lakes5.4.2.1 - European rivers5.4.2.1.1 - Major European river catchments5.4.2.1.2 - Major rivers in European cities5.4.2.2 - European lakes and reservoirs5.4.2.2.1 - Natural lakes in Europe5.4.2.2.2 - Human-made lakes5.4.2.2.3 - Large lakes and reservoirs in Europe5.4.2.2.4 - Deep and shallow lakes and reservoirs5.4.3 - Regulation of European rivers5.4.3.1 - Reservoirs5.4.3.1.1 - Reservoir usage5.4.3.1.2 - Environmental problems related to reservoirs5.4.3.2 - River channelisation5.4.3.2.1 - Physical and biological effects5.4.4 - Organic pollution of rivers5.4.4.1 - Organic matter contents in European rivers5.4.4.2 - Human activities and organic matter5.4.4.3 - Assessment of river quality5.4.4.4 - Trends in organic matter discharge to rivers5.4.5 - Nutrients in European rivers and lakes5.4.5.1 - Nutrient concentrations in European rivers5.4.5.1.1 - Phosphorus in rivers5.4.5.1.2 - Nitrogen in rivers5.4.5.2 - Nutrient concentration in European lakes5.4.5.2.1 - Phosphorus in lakes5.4.5.2.2 - Nitrogen in lakes5.4.5.2.3 - Phosphorus concentration in large lakes5.4.5.3 - Impact of nutrients on lake water quality5.4.5.3.1 - Blue-green algae and phosphorus5.4.5.4 - Trends in nutrient concentrations5.4.5.4.1 - Phosphorus trends5.4.5.4.2 - Nitrogen trends5.4.6 - Acidification of surface waters5.4.6.1 - Acidification of surface waters in Europe5.4.6.2 - Impact of acidification5.4.6.3 - Acidification trends5.4.6.4 - Critical loads5.4.7 - Heavy metals, organic micropollutants, radioactivity and other hazards5.4.7.1 - Heavy metals5.4.7.1.1 - Cadmium5.4.7.1.2 - Copper5.4.7.1.3 - Zinc5.4.7.2 - Organic micropollutants5.4.7.2.1 - Accidents and leakage from waste disposal sites5.4.7.3 - Radioactivity5.4.7.3.1 - Nuclear power production and radioactive waste5.4.7.3.2 - Accidents5.4.7.4 - Other hazards5.4.7.4.1 - Pathogens5.4.7.4.2 - Salinisation5.5 - Conclusions5.5.1 - The water resource5.5.2 - Groundwater5.5.3 - Rivers and lakes in Europe5.5.4 - Endpiece