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Indicator Assessment
The total ecological footprint of the EU-27 Member States plus the United Kingdom is high and is now more than twice the biocapacity available in the region (i.e. the capacity of ecosystems to produce useful biological materials and to act as sinks of carbon emissions). The picture is similar for the EEA-39 countries.
The region’s high ecological footprint means that its total demand for ecological goods and services exceeds that which Europe’s ecosystems can supply. This results in a large ecological deficit, which has negative consequences for the environment within and outside Europe.
Ecological footprint variation per region in 2016
Note: The areas of the coloured bars show the total ecological footprint of each region in 2016. They are the product of the per person ecological footprint and the population of each region. The biocapacity of each region is represented by the area within the red lines; the height shows the per capita biocapacity.
The total ecological footprint of the EU-27 Member States plus the United Kingdom increased rapidly during the 1960s and 1970s. It has remained relatively constant since the 1980s, decreasing slightly between 2010 and 2016. At the same time the region’s total biocapacity— the capacity of ecosystems to produce useful biological materials and absorb carbon emissions generated by our production and consumption systems — has slightly decreased too.
This high ecological footprint results in a considerable ecological deficit, as the total demand for ecological goods and services exceeds that which Europe’s ecosystems can supply. The total ecological footprint of the EU-27 Member States plus the United Kingdom is more than double their own biocapacity; the same is true for the EEA-39 countries. The pan-European ecological deficit per person is smaller than that of the EU-28 or EEA-39 regions, as shown in Fig. 1.
Countries with an ecological deficit can meet their demands in three ways: (1) over-exploitation of their own stocks of ecological capital, e.g. through overfishing; (2) import of products leading to exploitation of the biocapacity of other nations; or (3) exploitation of the global commons, in particular by releasing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions into the atmosphere from fossil fuel burning, land use change and the production and consumption processes. Some countries overdraw their own biocapacity by producing goods for export while simultaneously importing goods from elsewhere. This affects the biocapacity of the countries from which the imports come. On a global scale, all nations cannot be net importers, and nations that rely on increasingly scarce imports, for which there is competition, will increasingly risk losing their supply. Figures 2 and 3 present changes in the Ecological Footprint and biocapacity by land type.
While the ecological footprint does not measure biodiversity loss directly, it tracks global pressures on biodiversity and can be used to complement other measures of ecosystem-specific impacts on biodiversity (Galli et al., 2014). In a world where the ecological footprint is already exceeding biocapacity, Europe's ecological deficit may have major global environmental implications, including the degradation of ecological assets, the depletion of natural capital, biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse.
Fig. 4 shows that the EU-27 Member States plus the United Kingdom is not the only region where the Ecological Footprint exceeds biocapacity: North America, the Asia-Pacific, Africa, and the Middle East/Central Asia regions also have biocapacity deficits. On the other hand, the larger European region (non-EU) has biocapacity that is slightly larger than its Ecological Footprint. The same is true for Latin America.
The ecological footprint of Europe is a proxy measure of the amount of biologically productive land and water areas that Europe requires to produce all the biological resources it consumes and to absorb the emissions it generates, using prevailing technology and management strategies. These areas could be located anywhere in the world. This can be compared with the biocapacity of the planet or the biocapacity available within a given region.
Global hectares (gha) per person.
This indicator provides a quantitative assessment of global and local overshoots, i.e. the extent to which humanity's footprint, or demand for ecosystem resources, exceeds biocapacity and the planet's ability to regenerate these resources. The global overshoot means that ecosystem stocks are being liquidated and untreated wastes are accumulating in the biosphere. While it is not known precisely how long various ecosystems can tolerate this growing ecological deficit, it is predicted that the increasing pressure will eventually contribute to ecosystem degradation or failure.
National ecological footprint accounting provides a number of key indicators such as the footprint of consumption, the footprint of production and the biocapacity of a nation. Hence, it can provide assessments of aspects such as (1) Europe's demands on land and sea areas within its own borders; (2) Europe's demands on the land and sea areas outside its borders; and (3) Europe's demand on specific ecosystem types. Although the aggregate consumption of material resources by European households is more than double the available biocapacity within Europe, Europe's domestic extraction of biological resources is still below Europe's total biocapacity as a result of imports from other regions and has remained at about the same level in recent years.
The 'ecological footprint of European countries' (i.e. the consumption footprint) directly measures Europe's resource use compared with what is available globally. In other words, it shows to what extent the level of consumption is replicable on a global scale. It can also be used to measure local extraction rates. This means that ecological footprint accounting can provide information on global and local sustainability.
2020 EU biodiversity targets: Target 6
National Footprint Accounts (NFAs) provide the core data required for all ecological footprint analyses. The accounts measure the ecological resource use and resource capacity of nations over time. Based on approximately 15,000 data points per country per year, the accounts calculate the footprints of more than 200 countries, territories, and regions from 1961 to the present.
National Footprint Account calculations are based on United Nations or UN-affiliated datasets, including those published by the Food and Agriculture Organization, the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database, and the UN Statistics Division, as well as the International Energy Agency. Supplementary data sources include studies in peer-reviewed science journals and thematic collections (books).
For general data and methodology, see https://www.footprintnetwork.org/resources/data
A more detailed description of the methodology can be found in a paper by Borucke et al (2013).
The most recent description of the accounting methodology and results by Lin et al. (2018), based on the 2018 edition of the National Footprint Accounts, reviews the evolution of the National Footprint Accounts, describes and quantifies the effects of data and methodological improvements that have been implemented in the accounts since the 2012 edition, and reviews the latest global trends.
The calculations of the 2019 edition of the National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts is explained in the Guidebook to the National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts 2019, available at https://www.footprintnetwork.org/content/uploads/2019/05/National_Footprint_Accounts_Guidebook_2019.pdf
Geographical coverage:
EU-27 + UK: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Sweden plus the United Kingdom
EEA-39: 27 EU Member States and the United Kingdom with Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Norway, Serbia, Switzerland and Turkey. Results for Iceland, Kosovo (UNSCR 1244/99) and Liechtenstein are excluded due to the low reliability of ecological footprint and biocapacity data.
Pan Europe: Albania, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, North Macedonia, Malta, Moldova, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, United Kingdom and Uzbekistan. Results for Andorra, Iceland, Kosovo (UNSCR 1244/99), Liechtenstein, Monaco and San Marino have been excluded due to the low reliability of ecological footprint and biocapacity data.
Some minimal data cleaning excludes extreme outliers. In addition, if data points are missing between reported years, the gaps are filled by extrapolating from adjacent years.
The methodology for ecological footprint accounting is based on six assumptions:
1. Annual amounts of biological resources consumed and wastes generated by countries are tracked by national and international organisations.
2. The quantity of biological resources appropriated for human use is directly related to the amount of bioproductive land area necessary for their regeneration and for the assimilation of wastes.
3. By weighting each area in proportion to its inherent ability to regenerate biomass, the different areas can be expressed in terms of a standardised average productive hectare (a global hectare).
4. The overall demand in global hectares can be aggregated by adding all mutually exclusive resource-providing and waste-assimilating areas required to support the demand.
5. Aggregated human demand (ecological footprint) and nature's supply (biocapacity) can be directly compared to each other.
6. Area demand can exceed area supply.
The ecological footprint makes apparent the gap between human demand and regeneration. Likely, the accounts provide underestimates. On the demand side, UN data sets do not completely document all demands. On the biocapacity side, availability may be exaggerated since some overuses are not factored into the assessment due to lack of consistent data. Such aspects include soil erosion, groundwater depletion and loss in forest productivity due to increased forest fires and pestilence.
Ecological footprint accounts are created by aggregating UN statistics. They are aggregated based on the underlying research question, tracking competing demands on biologically productive areas. This basic accounting produces results that are as reliable as the underlying data set. Since the underlying data set does not declare confidence levels, they cannot be determined either for the aggregate.
Main limitations of the indicator
Several important aspects of sustainable use/management are not measured by the ecological footprint:
For references, please go to https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/ecological-footprint-of-european-countries-2/assessment or scan the QR code.
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