Energy efficiency and energy consumption in the household sector

Odyssee energy efficiency index (ODEX) (EU-27)

Note: For households, the ODEX is carried out at the level of 3 end-uses (heating, water heating, cooking) and 5 large appliances (refrigerators, freezers, washing machines, dishwashers and TVs)

Data source:

ODYSSEE, Enerdata, October 2010 update. Household energy efficiency; http://www.odyssee-indicators.org

The access is restricted to project partners or subscribers. The data extracted from the ODYSSEE database and used in the graphs are: the energy consumption by end uses, stock of dwellings, the average floor area, the number of large electrical appliances, the share of central heating.

 

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Influence of climate on household energy consumption per dwelling

Note: Influence of climate on household energy consumption per dwelling between 1990 and 2009.

Data source:

ODYSSEE

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Variation of the consumption per dwelling (1990-2009)

Note: Variation of the consumption per dwelling (1990-2009)

Data source:

• ODYSSEE. Household energy efficiency by country. The Odyssee database is available at http://www.odyssee-indicators.org/. The access is restricted to project partners or subscribers.

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Household energy consumption by end-use in the EU-27

Note: Share of energy consumption by end uses in total households consumption in percent.

Data source:

• ODYSSEE. Unit consumption per dwelling for space heating with climatic corrections, Unit consumption of hot water per dwelling, Unit consumption per dwelling for cooking, Unit consumption per m2 for space heating with climatic corrections, Stock of dwellings (permanently occupied). The Odyssee database is available at http://www.odyssee-indicators.org/. The access is restricted to project partners or subscribers

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Energy consumption by end use per dwelling, 2009

Note: Based on the ratio: energy consumption by end uses divided by the number of permanently occupied dwelling.

Data source:

• ODYSSEE. Unit consumption per dwelling by end uses: space heating, water heating, cooking. The Odyssee database is available at http://www.odyssee-indicators.org/. The access is restricted to project partners or subscribers.The data extracted from the ODYSSEE database and used in the graphs are:

  Unit consumption per dwelling for space heating with climatic corrections, Unit consumption of hot water per dwelling, Unit consumption per dwelling for cooking,  Unit consumption per dwelling for lighting and electrical appliances

Energy consumption at normal climate.

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Drivers of the change in average annual energy consumption per household in the EU-27 between 1990 and 2009

Note: The energy consumption of households is decomposed in different explanatory effects: change in average dwelling size, increasing number of appliances (more electrical appliances) and central heating diffusion, energy efficiency improvement (as measured from ODEX) and change in behaviour related to more confort.

Data source:

• ODYSSEE. Drivers of the change in average annual energy consumption per household. The Odyssee database is available at http://www.odyssee-indicators.org/. The access is restricted to project partners or subscribers.

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Energy efficiency index by country (2000-2009)

Note: Change in energy efficiency index by country in the period 2000-2009

Data source:

• ODYSSEE. Household energy efficiency by country. The Odyssee database is available at http://www.odyssee-indicators.org/. The access is restricted to project partners or subscribers.

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Diffusion of solar water heaters

Note: Diffusion of solar water heaters in the EU-25

Data source:

Odyssee

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Effects of building standards

Note: Effects of building standards

Data source:

Odyssee

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• Over the period 1990-2009, energy efficiency in the household sector increased by 24%, at an average rate of 1.4% per year (Figure 1). Part of these improvements occurred in the area of space heating due to better thermal performance of buildings encouraged by mandatory efficiency standards for new buildings, and a larger penetration of high efficiency boilers (e.g. condensing boilers). All EU countries have developed thermal regulations for new dwellings, some of them as far as the seventies[1]. These standards require a theoretical maximum heating unit consumption for new buildings. However, the magnitude of this impact varies with the countries, depending on the number of standards upgrades, their severity and the number of new dwellings (i.e. the share of recent building in to total stock). Figure 9 shows an estimate of the impact of building standards in the unit consumption of dwelling since 1990 for a selection of countries[2]. The introduction of new dwellings with better insulation since 1990 contributed to decrease the unit consumption per dwelling at different levels: 12% for Sweden, around 35% for France and Netherlands, 40% for Poland, 50% for Denmark and 70% for Germany. The other factors responsible for the decrease of the unit consumption should be the retrofitting of existing dwellings and the introduction of new more efficient heating appliances (namely, condensing boilers and heat pumps), as well as behavioral savings.

• For the EU-27 as a whole, new dwellings built in 2009 consumed about 40% less energy than dwellings built in 1990, because of new building codes[3] (Figure 9). For large appliances, the improvement in energy efficiency results from technical improvement driven by EU mandatory Directives on labelling and voluntary agreements with equipment manufacturers. As a result, the share of the most efficient appliances (A, A+, A++) has increased significantly: from 6% in 1997 to 94% in 2009 for refrigerators and from 3% to 95% for washing machines, for example[4].
• Over the period 2005-2009, the average energy efficiency improvement rate at EU level was 1.3% per year. Energy efficiency progress has been lower in 2009 at EU level (0.6 %). There exist large discrepancies among countries: from few improvements for Hungary, Greece to great improvements for new members such as Slovenia, Poland and Romania with an annual average rate of energy efficiency improvement above 2% over the period 2000-2009 (Figure 7). Over the period 2005-2009 there is also an acceleration in energy efficiency progress for EU15 countries such as UK (improvement of 4%/year), France (improvement of 2.2%/year), Ireland (-2.5%/year), Germany (-1.9%/year). Differences between countries can be explained by the high energy efficiency potentials available in these countries due to outdated infrastructures (e.g. buildings, heating supply systems, etc).

[1] Including for instance France, the Netherlands, Denmark, Austria, Sweden.

[2] This estimate was based on a modelling assuming for new dwellings that their unit consumption is equal to the theoretical consumption as implied by the standards. This approach overestimates the  impact of building regulations as it is well known, but not well quantified , that the actual unit of new dwellings is higher than this consume more than this theoretical consumption, because of non compliance and rebound effects (the fact that in well insulated dwellings occupants tend to have a higher indoor temperature than in less insulated dwellings).

[3] Estimation based on the relative performance of new buildings built with new regulations, based on building codes, compared to the performance of new buildings built in 1990. 

[4] Source: GFK

• Between 1990 and 2009, the final household energy consumption increased by 7.5% in the EU-27[5], at an annual average growth rate of 0.4%. Over the same period, final household electricity consumption increased faster, at an annual growth rate of 1.7%.  Over the period 2005-2009 the final energy consumption decreased by 2.6% (-0.6%/year). Between 2008 and 2009, the household energy consumption has decreased by 0.7% due to the economic crisis. On the contrary, electricity consumption continued to increase at 1.6% a year. Gas and electricity are the main energy source in the household energy consumption (39% and 25% respectively in 2009 compared to 29% and 19% in 1990). Oil follows with 15%, ahead of biomass (11%). Heat, from district heating, and coal represent 7% and 3% of the household consumption in 2009 (compared to 10% and 12% in 1990).
• Space heating represented 68% of total household consumption in 2009 compared to 74% in 1990. The share of electricity for lighting and appliances increased from 10% to 15% in 2009 compared to 1990. Water heating remains stable at 12% in 2009 (Figure 3). Most of the savings in energy consumption in the household sector took place because of improvements in space heating technologies and tighter building codes (see also Figure 9 below).
• To avoid yearly fluctuations due to climatic variations from one year to the other and have consistent trends, the household energy consumption should be measured at normal climate (i.e. corrected for climatic variations) (Figure 1 and 2). Between 1990 and 2009 household energy consumption per dwelling (climate corrected) decreased by 0.8%/year in the EU-27. From 2005 to 2009, the decrease in energy consumption per dwelling (-1.1%/year) was driven by increasing energy prices (4.3%[6] per year on average, all fuels combined). n 2009 the unit consumption per dwelling (climate corrected) decreased significantly (-3%) despite a drop in energy prices (-9%): this may be due to the first reactions to the depressed economic situation in most countries (actual income reduction and further expectations. Unit consumption per dwelling has decreased in almost all EU countries from 1990 to 2009 except in 6 countries, mainly southern countries (Malta, Greece, Cyprus, Spain), Finland and Croatia (Figure 3).

[5] Data for EU as a whole are based on Eurostat data; data for heat consumption has been severely revised since 1990 by Eurostat in June 2011 (this change has been taken into account but  changed  the trends compared to the previous versions of the factsheets)

[6] Energy prices: weighted average (electricity, fuel, gas prices for domestic users) based on Eurostat data

• The observed progress in energy efficiency was due to better thermal performance of buildings, more efficient large electrical appliances (cold and washing appliances) and heating systems (condensing boilers and heat pumps). However, part of this improvement was offset by increased number of electrical  appliances, larger homes and the diffusion of central heating[7] . The combined effect of these three factors was an increase in the average consumption per dwelling by around 0.4% a year each (Figure 6), offsetting 60% of the energy efficiency improvement achieved through technological innovation.

[7] The penetration of central heating was mainly significant in the southern European countries and in Ireland. Central heating (around 85% of EU dwellings in 2009) , which includes district heating, block heating, individual boiler heating and electric heating, implies that all the rooms are well heated, as opposed to room heating, where generally a stove provides heat to the main room only. It is estimated that the replacement of single room heating by central heating increases the energy required for space heating by about 25 % on average.

The case of water heating

Energy consumption for water heating represented around 12% of the household consumption in 2009. Energy consumption for water heating per dwellings tends to decrease in countries since 1990 (-1.2%/year since 2000) except for 7 countries, Slovenia, Spain, Belgium, Netherlands, Cyprus, Latvia and Malta.

Solar energy is promoted in many countries to substitute conventional energies presently used to produce hot water. Solar water heaters can represent a good economical and environmental solution mainly for southern countries which benefit from a good solar irradiation. The question is how much energy savings the diffusion of solar energy will generate. The answer depends on the methodologies and conventions used. With a top-down approach, the impact of solar heating on the household energy consumption will be measured based on the energy statistics. In this case, the savings come from the fact that one kWh of solar will replace more than one kWh of conventional energy (due to the convention applied in energy statistics to solar heating, namely that there are no losses in conversion). The level of energy saved will depend depending on the type of water heaters replaced (for instance their efficiency). So looking at both energy consumption for water heating and water consumption trends in the households, one could draw some conclusions on the influence of solar heating penetration. In a bottom-up approach used in national evaluations, solar water heaters are considered as an energy saving technology and thus the saving will be much larger[8]. One such example of a bottom up approach is the methodology applied in France.

In France there is an energy saving obligation for energy suppliers above a certain level of sales. The total volume of savings of the obligation is defined by the government. The energy suppliers falling under the regulation, have to prove a volume of savings proportional to their market share. For that purpose, they have to implement actions with their consumers to encourage energy savings investments and will receive in exchange certificates; they are also allowed to buy energy saving certificates from suppliers in excess of their obligation. To define the amount of savings (i.e. certificates) linked to a given action (e.g. promotion of solar water heaters), energy savings have been standardised for a large number of energy saving equipment and action. The savings values have been agreed upon following a process involving various stakeholders on the basis of expert opinions and survey data. The details of the calculations are not public but the value of the standardised savings by equipment and actions are published on the Ministry web site[9].

The annual  savings in year t = n_i x ES_i in kWh

ES_i = energy savings per m² of solar water heater in climatic zone i

n_i   = surface area of solar water heater promoted or installed in year t in zone i

The life time savings are discounted with a discount rate of 4%. This results in the value of 11.56 years for the discounted lifetime for solar water heaters with a standardised life time of 15 years. The savings are presented as kWh cumac to clarify that they are cumulated and discounted. The following table gives the official for individual solar water heaters by climatic zone.

Lifetime discounted savings by climatic area (kWh cumac/m²)

Based on this methodology, the energy savings realised due to replacement of traditional water heating equipment with solar heating range from 250 kWh/m²/year and 400 kWh/m²/year depending on the climatic zone

Figure 8 presents the percentage of dwelling with solar water heaters in Europe in 2009 according to the solar irradiation. Cyprus and Greece have the most important share of dwelling equipped with solar water heaters (75% for Cyprus, 35% for Greece). Austria is the benchmark for most countries with medium solar radiation (from 3% to 24% dwellings equipped). In most European countries there exist financial incentives (subsidies or soft loans) and fiscal incentives (tax credit) to encourage households to install solar water heaters in their dwellings.

[8] This is the case for the measurement  of savings linked to solar water heaters in national white certificate schemes or in the NEEAP. The savings will be in a range of 500 to 1000 kWh/m² depending on the country.

[9] http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/Secteur-du-batiment-residentiel.html