6.3. Black smoke (BS)

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Air Quality in Europe, 1993 - A Pilot Report

6.3. Black smoke (BS)

6.3.1. Behaviour, effects, emissions

(See under Suspended Particles, chapter 6.4.1.)

6.3.2. Air Quality Limits and Guide Values

EU Limit and Guide values for black smoke and WHO Guideline values for combined exposure to SO2 and particulate matter are given in Table 6.9 and Table 6.10.

Table 6.9: EU Limit and Guide Values for BS (black smoke) (µg/m3).
EU Council Directive 80/779/EEC.

Limit Values	Median of 24h values	Mean of 24h values	98 percentile of 24h values	Maximum of 24h values
Year	80		2501)
Winter (1.10-31.3)	130
Guide Values
Year		40-60		100-150

1) EU Member States must take all appropriate steps to ensure that this value is not exceeded for more than three consecutive days. Moreover, EU Member States must endeavour to prevent and to reduce any such instances in which this value has been exceeded.

Table 6.10: WHO Guideline values for Europe for combined exposure to SO2 and particulate matter (BS, TSP or TP) (WHO, 1987).

Substance	Mean values for averaging time
Substance	24 h	1 year
SO2	125	50
BS1)	125	50
TSP2)	1203)
TP4)	703)

1) Black smoke

2) Total suspended particulates measured by high volume sampler without any size selection.

3) Value to be regarded as tentative at this stage.

4) Thoracic particles measured by a sampler having a 50% cut-off at 10 µm.

6.3.3. Urban and local black smoke concentrations

In Appendix B black smoke data from 10 countries are given. The stations are ranged according to the 98 percentile of 24h values. The stations with the highest values are given in Table 6.11. Also the maximum and median 24h values are given.

Figure 6.32 shows that black smoke concentrations in Sweden are lower than in other countries even though the measurements only cover the winter period which usually has the highest pollution level. Swedish stations are urban city centre stations, but they are located well away from traffic sources. They also are "above ceiling" stations. Black smoke levels in Norway, Denmark, Scotland and England are about the same. Maximum levels in Northern Ireland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium and Greece are higher. Black smoke levels in Athens are much higher than in the other cities.

Data from the selected cities in Figure 5.1/Table 5.2 are shown in Figure 6.33-Figure 6.36. These figures give the median, mean, 98 percentile and maximum values based on 24h values. Black smoke data are rather limited throughout Europe. Black smoke levels seem to be highest in Southern Europe, but again Eastern Europe data are missing.

Table 6.11: 24 h maximum, 98 percentile and median black smoke values for 1993 for European cities ranged according to the 98 percentile values (µg/m3). Swedish data cover the winter 1993/94.

Country	City			Black smoke 24 h values
Country	Name	Class	Station	Maximum		98 percentile		Median
Greece	Athens	1	Patission 147	329	c	265		93
Spain	Tenerife	4	Santa Cruz	367	m	238	1	78
Belgium	Bruxelles	2	Maison Communale, Place du Conseil	149	3	149.0	3	26.5
Norway	Trondheim	4	Torget	149	2	138	2	15
Belgium	Bruxelles	2	30 rue Marche aux Chabon	179	3	134.4	3	22
United Kingdom	Belfast	4	Belfast 12 Royal Victoria Hospital	235	1	133		14
Greece	Athens	1	Pireas Platia Dimotikou	157	d	130		39
Belgium	Bruxelles	2	3 rue Cortenbach, Police div. 10	174	3	126.6	3	25
The Netherlands	Utrecht	4	Witte Vrouwenstraat	177	a	126		51
Belgium	Gent	4	Abeelstraat, Politie Bur	152	3	120.0	3	25
Belgium	Gent	4	Groothandelsmarkt	122	3	116.3	3	22
Belgium	Gent	4	Kastel Speltink	153	3	113.8	3	22
France	Marseille	3	Plombières	146		108		62
France	Marseille	3	Rabatau	136		108		42
Belgium	Gent	4	Sirt Kruisdorp	108	3	102.9	3	13
Ireland	Cork	4	Market, Princes St.	159		98		14.5
Belgium	Gent	4	Zwimbad, Purshaaf, Nimferstraat	102	3	97.9	3	22.5
Belgium	Charleroi	4	505, Burcau C.A.P.	108	3	93	3	19
France	Strasbourg	4	rue du 22 novembre			93
France	Marseille	3	Saint Marcel	112		93		36
Ireland	Dublin	3	Rathmines	152		87.3		20
France	Marseille	3	Timone	112		87		38
Greece	Athens	1	Smyrni Cementry	118		86		19
Norway	Drammen	5	Engene	113		86		30
Belgium	Bruxelles	2	Maison Communale, Place Tomberg	89	3	85.9	3	14
Belgium	Bruxelles	2	175 Av. de la Couronne	90	3	84.3	3	13.5
United Kingdom	Belfast	4	Belfast 11 16 College st.	213		83		15
Belgium	Charleroi	4	509, Hôtel de ville	109	3	82	3	19
Norway	Oslo	3	St. Olavs square	134	1	77	1	15
Norway	Fredrikstad	5	Broch street	103	2	77	2	22
Spain	Bilbao	4	Lab. Sanidad	95		77		31
Belgium	Liege	4	202, Ecole St. Sépulcre	212		75		15
France	Paris	1	Paris Tour St-Jacques	125		75		22
United Kingdom	Glasgow	2	23 Montrose st.	108		75		22
France	Strasbourg	4	Aspa			74
Belgium	Antwerpen	3	Antwerpen School, Quellingstraat	83	3	69.9	3	26.5
Belgium	Liege	4	218, Caserne Pompiers	139		68		21
The Netherlands	Utrecht	4	Kard. de Jongweg	177		68		20
Spain	Bilbao	4	Zorroza	103	2	68	2	20
Ireland	Dublin	3	Mountjoy Square	95		66.3		12
Belgium	Brugge	4	Ministerie Volksgezondheid	67	3	65.1	3	13
Spain	Bilbao	4	Gecho	150		63		18
Belgium	Antwerpen	3	Linkeroewer, Haleurinjnlaan 86	64	3	60.8	3	13
Ireland	Dublin	3	Finglas, Corp. Amsing Dept	80		60		12
United Kingdom	London	1	London City 16	109		59		21
United Kingdom	Sheffield	3	Town Chambers	85	1	56	1	12
Belgium	Liege	4	Université	87		53		10

Figure 6.32: 24 h maximum, 98 percentile and median black smoke values for 1993 for selected stations and cities (µg/m3). Swedish data cover the winter 1993/94.

Figure 6.33: Black smoke median 24h values in selected cities (µg/m3).

Figure 6.34: Black smoke mean values in selected cities (µg/m3).

Figure 6.35: Black smoke 98 percentile values based on 24h values in selected cities (µg/m3).

Figure 6.36: Black smoke maximum 24h values in selected cities (µg/m3).

Exceedances

Table 6.12 shows that one of the stations in Athens is the only one with exceedances of the EU Limit values for black smoke (median >80 µg/m3 and 98 percentile >250 µg/m3, 24h values).

Table 6.12: Exceedances of EU Limit Values for black smoke.

Country	City	Station name	1 year	1 year	Winter
Country	City	Station name	Median >80	P98 >250	Median >130
Greece	Athens	Patission 147	93	265

Table 6.13 shows exceedances of EU Guide values and WHO Guideline values for combined exposure to SO2 and black smoke/particulate matter. Stations marked with * show exceedance of WHO Guideline values. Stations in bold show exceedance of the upper EU Guide value.

The table indicates that exceedances of these guide values are quite common in Europe. Black smoke values in parts of Germany and Eastern Europe may be even higher.

Table 6.13: Exceedances of EU and WHO Guide Values for Black Smoke.ble 6.13: Exceedan

Country	City	Station	Mean > 40-60	Max. 24h > 100-150
Belgium	Bruxelles	30 rue Marche aux Charbon		179*
		3 rue Cortenbach, Police div. 10		174*
		Maison Communale, Place du Conseil		149*
	Liege	202 Ecole St. Sépulcre		212*
		218 Caserne Pompiers		139*
	Charleroi	505, Burrau C.A.P.		108
		509, Hôtel de ville		109
	Gent	Kastel Speltink		153*
		Groot handelsmarkt		122
		Abulstraat, Politie Bur.		152*
		Zwiimbad, Purshaaf Nimenstraat		102
		Sirt Kruisdorp		108
France	Marseille	Timone	41	112
		Plombières	62*	146*
		Rabateau	45	136*
		Saint Marcel	41	112
	Paris	Paris Tour St.-Jacques		125*
Greece	Athens	Patission 147	108*	329*
		Pireas Platia Dimotikou	46	157*
		Smyrni Cementry		118
Ireland	Dublin	Rathmines		152*
	Cork	Market, Princes St.		159*
The Netherlands	Ligging voor Achtergrondmetingen	Pompstation-Braakman		103
	Utrecht	Witte Vrouwenstraat	53.6*	177*
		Kard. de Jongweg		177*
Norway	Oslo	St. Olav Square		134*
	Bergen	CMI		108
	Trondheim	Torget		149*
	Drammen	Engene		113
	Fredrikstad	Broch street		103
	Skien	Kings street		118
Spain	Bilbao	Gecho		150*
	Tenerife	Santa Cruz	103.7*
United Kingdom	Belfast	Royal Victoria Hospital		235*
		Belfast 11, 16 College St.		213*
	London	London city 16		109
	Glasgow	23 Montrose St.		108

Mean: *) > 50 WHO Guidelines
Max: *) > 125 WHO Guidelines

Trends

Figure 6.37-Figure 6.40 show trends in black smoke data on an annual basis for selected stations in different countries. The figures show the maximum, 98 percentile and median of 24 h data from Norway, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain and Greece.

Median values seem to show a slightly decreasing trend at most stations. Maximum and 98 percentile values show more variability from year to year, especially in Belfast, Charleroi and Bilbao. Black smoke levels in Athens are much higher than in other cities.

Figure 6.37: Black smoke trend in Norway 1977-1993 (µg/m3). Data from national reports.

Figure 6.38: Black smoke trend in Belfast and London City, UK 1976-1993. APIS data.

Figure 6.39: Black smoke trend in Utrecht, the Netherlands 1990-1994 and Charleroi, Belgium 1975-1994. APIS data.

Figure 6.40: Black smoke trend in Bilbao, Spain 1986-1993 and Athens, Greece 1985-1993 (µg/m3). APIS data.

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