Indicator Assessment

Overview of the European energy system

Indicator Assessment

Prod-ID: IND-351-en

Also known as: CSI 045 , ENER 036

Last modified 11 May 2021

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Topics: Energy

This page was archived on 09 Feb 2021 with reason: Other (Discontinued indicator)

In 2014, the EU-28 energy system was still heavily dependent on fossil fuels but it was in the process of decarbonising. Fossil fuels accounted for 72.5 % of total gross inland energy consumption while renewables accounted for 12.5 %. The efficiency of public conventional thermal power plants stabilised in the EU-28 at around 48 %. In 2014, only 72.3 % of total gross inland energy consumption in the EU‑28 reached end users. Since 2005, the EU’s dependence on imports of fossil fuels (gas, solid fuels and oil) from non-EU countries remained stable at around 53 % as a share of total gross inland energy consumption. In 2014, 59.5 % of total net imports was oil, 26.5 % gas and 14 % solid fuels.

This indicator is discontinued. No more assessments will be produced.

The overall picture of the energy system

Note: This Sankey diagram shows the composition of the primary energy entering the energy system of the EU-28 in 2014, and where this primary energy was used, either as losses or as consumption by specific sectors of the economy. The units are million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe).

Data source:

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Public thermal power plants in the EU-28 had a net efficiency of 47.6 % in 2014. Between 2005 and 2014, the efficiency of public conventional thermal power plants more or less stabilised in both the EU-28 and the non-EU EEA countries.
Transformation losses represented 21.3 % of EU-28 gross inland energy consumption in 2014. In addition to the inefficiency of generation, these losses are also influenced by the fuel mix (e.g. direct production of electricity from renewables — excluding biomass and municipal waste[1] — is not subject to transformation losses in the same way as fossil fuels are), the level of electricity imports and the share of nuclear power[2].
The efficiency of the energy system varies considerably across Member States. The efficiency of energy available for final consumption ranges from 96 % for Luxembourg to 50 % for Bulgaria. The low level of losses in Luxembourg reflects a significant degree of electricity imports from other countries (which means that the transformation losses involved in its production are not counted in the country of final use) as well as the fact that a significant amount of electricity comes from high efficiency gas-fired power plants with the remaining demand covered by hydro and other renewables. In Bulgaria, on the other hand, the main technologies used for power generation are low-efficiency, steam-technology thermal power plants running primarily on Lignite and nuclear power generation. Together they explain why about 50 % of the primary energy is lost.
Losses from distribution in the EU-28 were 1.6 % of gross inland energy consumption in 2014. Distribution losses include losses in gas and heat distribution, in electricity transmission and distribution, and in coal transport. Although on average, distribution losses are small, they are subject to sizeable variations between Member States (in 2014 from 0.2 % for Luxembourg to 4.4 % for Denmark). Countries with a high amount of district heating tend to have higher overall distribution losses. This is because losses in heat distribution networks can be sizeable (in the order of 5-25 % of the heat produced entering a heat distribution network). Network (i.e. distribution) losses primarily depend on factors such as network design (including central or distributed energy production), operation and maintenance, but also on the population density of the country. Systems are more efficient when power lines to large consumers are as direct as possible, thus reducing the number of transformation steps (as these play a role in the network losses). Increasing the use of distributed generation may be one way to reduce such losses.

[1] If municipal waste is used for direct production of heat (or in combined heat and power (CHP) plants), the efficiency can be as high as around 90 %. However, if the waste is used only for electricity production, the efficiency is only about 30%. In any case, these plants are valued primarily because they offer an alternative to waste disposal so efficiency is not the main goal.

[2] In the statistics recorded by Eurostat, the ratio of primary energy to electricity production from nuclear is fixed at 1:3.

The percentage of fossil fuels as a share of the gross inland energy consumption of the EU-28 declined slightly from 78.8 % in 2005 to 72.5 % in 2014. During this period, the percentage of renewables as a share of gross inland consumption increased by 6.3 percentage points, from 7.1 % in 2005 to 13.4 % in 2014 (see also ENER 026), while the percentage of share of nuclear as a share of energy consumption remained stable at 15 % between 2005 and 2014.
In the EU-28, the primary energy consumption of total petroleum products decreased by 2.3 % per year between 2005 and 2014, while that of solid fuels and gas decreased by 1.9 % and 2.9 % per year, respectively. Over the same period, the primary energy consumption of renewable energies increased by 5.8 % per year. More recent trends show that the decarbonisation of the European energy system is continuing. Between 2013 and 2014, the primary energy consumption of fossil fuels in the EU-28 decreased by 5.4 %, while that of coal decreased by 6.3 %, gas by 11.4 % and nuclear by 0.1 %, whereas the gross inland consumption of renewables increased by 2.3 % (see also ENER 026).
For the non-EU EEA Member States (Iceland, Norway and Turkey[1]), gross inland energy consumption increased by 46 % or 4.3 % per year in Turkey, between 2005 and 2014 and by 88.2 % or 7.3 % per year in Iceland and by 8 % or 0.9 % per year in Norway.

[1] Data for Liechtenstein and Switzerland were not available.

Net imports of fuel types as a percentage of fuel-specific gross inland consumption

Chart

Data sources:

Energy balance sheets provided by Statistical Office of the European Union (Eurostat)

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Table

Data sources:

Energy balance sheets provided by Statistical Office of the European Union (Eurostat)

Explore chart interactively

The EU’s energy system remains highly dependent on imported fossil fuels. The EU’s dependence on imports of fossil fuels (gas, solid fuels and oil) from non-EU countries remained stable between 2005 and 2014, at around 53 % (as a share of total gross inland energy consumption plus bunkers) (see Figure 2). In absolute terms, the net import of fossil fuels decreased by 10 % between 2005 and 2014. About 75 % of the decrease in the net import of fossil fuels between 2005 and 2014 was due to the decrease in imported oil.
In 2014, net oil imports accounted for 87.4 % of oil-based gross inland energy consumption plus bunkers. The majority of the imported oil was crude oil, which is then refined in the EU (Figure 1). For gas, 67.4 % of gas-based gross inland consumption was from net imports in 2014. Reliance on imports is lower for solid fuels but still significant. In 2014, 44.6 % of solid-fuel based gross inland consumption came from net imports.
Imports of petroleum products accounted for 60 % of total net fossil fuel imports in 2014, followed by gas and solid fuels, which accounted for 26 % and 14 % of total fossil fuel imports respectively. Since 2005, the percentage of oil as a share of the total net import of fossil fuels remained stable around 60 %. Similarly the figures for gas and solid fuels remained around 26 % and 14 %, respectively.
In addition to fossil fuels, Europe imports uranium for its nuclear power industry. The uranium demand in 2014 accounted for about 26 % of global uranium demand. Between 2013 and 2014, the uranium delivered to EU nuclear facilities decreased by 13.4 %. In 2014, more than 97 % of the uranium supplied to the EU-28 originated from outside the EU. The following suppliers provide the largest shares of uranium: Kazakhstan (27 %), Russia (18 %), Niger (15 %), Australia (14 %) and Canada (13 %) (Euratom, 2014).
Imports of solid biomass in the EU-28 are small. In 2014, net imports of solid biomass amounted to 3.4 % as a share of the total primary solid biomass consumption and 0.2 % as share of all energy products imports.

Supporting information

Indicator definition

Energy efficiency of conventional thermal electricity production

Output from conventional thermal power stations consists of gross electricity generation and any heat sold to third parties (combined heat and power plants) by both conventional thermal public utility power stations and autoproducer thermal power stations. The energy efficiency of conventional thermal electricity production (which includes both public plants and autoproducers) is defined as the ratio of electricity and heat production to the energy input as fuel. Fuels include solid fuels (i.e. coal, lignite and equivalents, oil and other liquid hydrocarbons, gas, thermal renewables, industrial and municipal waste, wood waste, biogas and geothermal energy) and other non-renewable waste.

Energy losses in transformation and distribution

Numerator: The amount of energy loss is the sum of the the energy industry's own consumption, with distribution and transformation losses (the difference between transformation input and output). Denominator: Numerator plus final energy available for final consumption in primary energy.

EU-28 share of primary energy by fuel type and share of final energy consumption by sector

Total energy consumption or gross inland energy consumption represents the quantity of energy necessary to satisfy the inland consumption of a country. It is calculated as the sum of the gross inland consumption of energy from solid fuels, oil, gas, nuclear and renewable sources, and a small component of ‘other’ sources (industrial waste and net imports of electricity). The relative contribution of a specific fuel is measured by the ratio between the energy consumption originating from that specific fuel and the total gross inland energy consumption calculated for a calendar year.

Units

Energy efficiency of conventional thermal electricity production
Fuel input, and electrical and heat output are measured in thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe). Efficiency is measured as the ratio of fuel output to input (%).

EU-28 share of primary energy by fuel type and, share of final energy consumption by sector
Energy consumption is measured in thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe). The share of each fuel in the total energy consumption is presented in the form of a percentage.

Rationale

Justification for indicator selection

Not all primary energy is available to be utilised as useful final energy for the end-consumer due to various losses that occur within the energy system (in particular transformation losses in the production of electricity and heat). The magnitude of these losses is an important indication of the overall environmental impact (e.g. greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, environmental impacts associated with upstream activities of resource extraction) of the energy system, due to the high proportion of fossil fuels still used. Significant losses occur in transformation, hence they depend on the system’s efficiency. The majority of thermal generation is produced using fossil fuels but can also include biomass, wastes and geothermal and nuclear. Associated environmental impacts at the point of energy generation are mainly related to greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. However, other environmental impacts, in addition to those previously mentioned, such as land use change, biodiversity loss, ground water pollution, oil spills in the marine environment etc., occur during upstream activities of producing and transporting the primary resources or final waste disposal. While the level of environmental impact depends on the particular type of fuel used and the extent to which abatement technologies are being employed, the greater the efficiency of the power plant, the lower the environmental impact for each unit of electricity produced (assuming that the increase in efficiency leads to an absolute decrease of fossil fuel input).

The structure of the energy mix in gross inland energy consumption provides an indication of the environmental pressures associated with energy consumption. The type and magnitude of the environmental impacts associated with energy consumption, such as resource depletion, greenhouse gas emissions, air pollutant emissions, water pollution, accumulation of radioactive waste etc., strongly depend on the type and amount of fuel consumed as well as on the abatement technologies applied. Energy consumption by sector gives an indication of which sectors are driving the trend in consumption of different fuels.

Energy supply does have negative effects on the environment and human health. Addressing energy dependency can result in the strengthening or weakening of these effects, depending on which fuels are being replaced and how the life cycle environmental pressures are being addressed (e.g. upstream environmental pressures associated with the production and transport of fossil fuels, downstream environmental pressures related to disposal of CO₂emissions and other wastes etc). Decreasing the amount of imported fossil fuels on one hand and increasing energy savings and the share of renewable energy on the other, are likely to result in diminishing the negative effects of energy supply and energy consumption on the environment and human health, as well as improving energy security in Europe (see also ENER 026, ENER 028, ENER 037, ENER 038).

Scientific references

No rationale references available

Policy context and targets

Context description

Overview of the energy system in 2013

The EU-28 is still heavily dependent on fossil fuels (see ENER 026). In 2013, fossil fuels accounted for 73.8 % of gross inland energy consumption, whereas renewables accounted for just 11.8 %.
In 2013, only 72.3 % of the total gross inland energy consumption in the EU-28 reached end users. Distribution, the energy sector’s own consumption of energy and other conversion losses represented 27.7 % of the total gross inland energy consumption in the EU-28, of which 4.8 % resulted from energy consumption by the energy sector.
The average energy efficiency of electricity and heat production from conventional thermal power stations and district heating plants in the EU-28 reached 50.5 % in 2013. During the transformation of energy carriers into electricity in power stations, 55.6 % of fuel input is lost as conversion losses. Conversion losses are declining in the EU-28 as power station efficiencies and electricity generation from renewables and combined heat and power (CHP) increase (see also ENER 019 and ENER 038). About 25 % of electricity was generated from CHP.
A high proportion of the fossil fuels used in the EU-28 in 2013 were imported from outside the EU. Net import accounted for 87.4 %, 65.3 % and 44.2 % of the gross inland consumption of oil, gas and solid fuels respectively (excluding bunkers).
Nuclear heat accounts for 45.5 % of transformational input into power stations (excluding CHP and district heating), followed by solid fuels (29 %), renewables (16.4 %) and natural gas (9 %).
Industries consumed the highest amount of electricity, followed by the domestic sector and other final consumers (including the services sector). The largest consumer of natural gas in 2013 was the domestic sector (110.5 Mtoe), followed by industries (83.2 Mtoe) (see ENER 016) whereas for coal, the largest consumers were electricity generation plants (power stations and CHPs). Coal and gas are also input fuels for other transformation plants that produce manufactured fuels.

Environmental context

Transformation and distribution losses
Not all primary energy (gross inland energy consumption) is available to be utilised as useful final energy for the end-consumer because of various losses that occur within the energy system (in particular transformation losses in the production of electricity and heat). The magnitude of these losses is an important indication of the overall environmental impact of the energy system (e.g. greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, environmental impacts associated with the upstream activities of resource extraction). The overall environmental impact has to be seen in the context of the type of fuel and the extent to which abatement technologies are used. In 2013, 73.8 % of gross inland consumption in the European Union came from fossil fuels (see ENER026). Because Europe imports large amounts of fossil fuels to meet its final energy demand, a significant part of the environmental impact associated with resource extraction remains outside the realm of European policy.

Efficiency of conventional thermal electricity and heat production
This indicator shows the efficiency of electricity and heat production from conventional thermal plants. The efficiency of electricity and heat production is an important factor since losses in transformation account for a substantial part of primary energy consumption. Higher production efficiency therefore results in substantial reductions in primary energy consumption, and hence, the reduction of environmental pressures due to the avoidance of energy production. However, the overall environmental impact has to be seen in the context of the type of fuel and the extent to which abatement technologies are used.

Compliance with environmental legislation (for example the Large Combustion Plant Directive 2001/80/EC, the CARE package, etc.) requires the application of a series of abatement technologies (e.g. to reduce SO₂ emissions requires retrofitting the plant with flue-gas desulphurisation technology, carbon capture and storage to capture CO₂ emissions, etc.) that increase the energy consumption of the plant, thus reducing its efficiency. This is why it is important to promote highly efficient generation units, such as the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC).

Gross Inland Energy Consumption by Fuel and Sector
The level, structure and evolution of total gross inland energy consumption provides an indication of the extent to which environmental pressures caused by energy production and consumption are likely to diminish or not. This indicator displays data disaggregated by fuel type and sector, since the associated environmental impacts are fuel-specific, and provides an indication of the associated environmental impacts by the different end-use sectors (transport, industry, services and households).

The consumption of fossil fuels (such as crude oil, oil products, hard coal, lignite, and natural and derived gas) provides a proxy indicator for resource depletion, CO₂ and other greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution levels (e.g. SO₂and NO_X), water pollution and biodiversity loss. The degree of environmental impact depends on the relative share of different fossil fuels and the extent to which pollution abatement measures are used. Natural gas, for instance, has approximately 40 % less carbon content per unit of energy than coal, and 25 % less carbon content than oil, and contains only marginal quantities of sulphur.

The level of nuclear energy consumption provides an indication of the trends in the amount of nuclear waste generated and of the risks associated with radioactive leaks and accidents. Increasing the consumption of nuclear energy at the expense of fossil fuels would, however, contribute to reductions in CO₂ emissions.

Renewable energy consumption is a measure of the contribution from technologies that are, in general, more environmentally benign, as they produce no (or very little) net CO₂and, usually, significantly lower levels of other pollutants. Renewable energy can, however, have impacts on landscapes and ecosystems (for example, potential flooding and changed water levels from large hydro power) and the incineration of municipal waste (which is generally made up of both renewable and non-renewable material) may also generate local air pollution.

The efficiency with which electricity is produced also determines the scale of the environmental impacts of electricity production and consumption, as it determines the amount of input fuel required to generate a given quantity of electricity.

The impact also depends on the total amount of electricity demanded and, hence, the level of electricity production required. Therefore, another way of reducing energy-related pressures on the environment includes using less electricity on the demand-side, through improved efficiency, conservation or a combination of the two.

Fossil fuel import dependency
Environmental impact and fuel import dependency are linked via the fuel mix used to deliver energy services, the level of demand for these services and the way in which these fuels and energy services are delivered (e.g. pipeline infrastructure vs. shipping, centralised vs. decentralised energy system, etc.) The level of net imports is determined by several factors including economic issues, the evolution of final energy demand (see ENER 016), the efficiency of the energy system (in particular for electricity transformation) (see ENER 019). It is also strongly affected by the level of indigenous supply as well as the development of alternatives such as renewables. In addition, the need to import fuels also depends on the end-use efficiency (e.g. measures in the transport and buildings sectors are expected to yield significant benefits in this respect (TERM 027)). The environmental pressures associated with energy production will change depending on the fuel mix used.

Policy context

Current European pricing mechanisms for transmission and distribution services do not necessarily directly target improvements in the efficiency of these networks. However, there are a number of policy initiatives aimed at increasing transformation efficiency (listed below). Some of the policies below are also linked to the other key policy questions in this indicator.

Energy Union Package COM(2015) 80 final of 25 February 2015. The Energy Union Package establishes a Framework Strategy for a Resilient Energy Union with a Forward-Looking Climate Policy. It includes a roadmap, which sets actions for: Security of Supply (SoS), Internal Energy Market (IEM), Energy Efficiency (EE), Greenhouse gases (GHG), and Research and Innovation (R&I) .
Directive 2012/27/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on energy efficiency, amending Directives 2009/125/EC and 2010/30/EU establishes a common framework of measures for the promotion of energy efficiency within the European Union in order to ensure the achievement of the Union’s 2020 20 % headline target on energy efficiency and to pave the way for further energy efficiency improvements beyond that date.
Under the Energy Efficiency Directive, countries must draw up National Energy Efficiency Action Plans (NEEAPs) to set out estimated energy consumption, planned energy efficiency measures and the improvements individual EU countries expect to achieve. They must draw up these plans every three years. They must also provide annual reports and Guidance for National Energy Efficiency Action Plans [SWD(2013) 180 final].
Energy 2020 — A strategy for competitive, sustainable and secure energy (COM(2010) 639 final). Energy efficiency is the first of the five priorities of the new energy strategy defined by the Commission.
The EU Action Plan for Energy Efficiency (COM (2006)545 final) aims to boost the cost-effective and efficient use of energy in the EU. One of the priority areas is making power generation and distribution more efficient. The Commission is also aiming to develop minimum efficiency requirements for new electricity, heating and cooling capacity to further reduce transformation losses (DG TREN, 2007).

The Council adopted on 6 April 2009 the climate-energy legislative package containing measures to fight climate change and promote renewable energy. This package is designed to achieve the EU's overall environmental target of a 20 % reduction in greenhouse gases, a 20 % increase in energy efficiency and a 20 % share of renewable energy in the EU's total energy consumption by 2020. The climate action and renewable energy (CARE) package (EC, 2009) includes the following main policy documents:

Directive 2009/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the geological storage of carbon dioxide.

Directive 2009/30/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 98/70/EC as regards the specification of petrol, diesel and gas-oil, and introducing a requirement that fuel suppliers reduce the greenhouse gas intensity of energy supplied for road transport (Low Carbon Fuel Standard).

Directive 2009/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2003/87/EC so as to improve and extend the greenhouse gas emissions allowance trading scheme of the Community.

Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC, sets an indicative target of 21 % of renewable electricity in gross electricity consumption in 2010 at EU level. Fulfilling this target will also help to meet the new, mandatory target of a 20 % share of renewables in final energy consumption in 2020 set by Directive 2009/28/EC.

Communication from the Commission; COM(2012) 271 - Renewable Energy: a major player in the European energy market.
Regulation (EC) No. 443/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council setting emission performance standards for new passenger cars as part of the Community’s integrated approach to reducing CO₂emissions from light-duty vehicles.
Community guidelines on state aid for environmental protection (2008/C 82/01).

Directive 2008/101/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 2003/87/EC so as to include aviation activities in the scheme for greenhouse gas emissions allowance trading within the community.

Directive on the promotion of high-efficiency co-generation (2004/8/EC).

Directives concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity (2003/54/EC) and gas (2003/55/EC) have led to the progressive introduction of competition in the electricity supply industry.
Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions (and control) is a European Union directive, which commits European Union Member States to control and reduce the impact of industrial emissions on the environment.
The Industrial Emission Directive was adopted by the European Parliament on 7 July 2010 and entered into force on 6 January 2011, and had to be transposed into national legislation by Member States by 7 January 2013. It recast seven existing Directives related to industrial emissions 78/176/EEC, 82/883/EEC, 92/112/EEC, 96/61/EC, 1999/13/EC, 2000/76/EC, 2008/1/EC, and 2001/80/EC (it includes the Large Combustion Plant and IPPC Directives) into a single clear and coherent legislative instrument focused on installations bigger than 20 MW. It is expected that these new market structures will encourage a switch to cheaper and more efficient technologies.
Communication from the Commission; COM(2008) 771 final. The main objectives of this communication are to report on the current status of combined heat and power generation (CHP or cogeneration) and to present possibilities for its development.

Detailed guidelines for the implementation and application of Annex II to Directive 2004/8/EC; 2008/952/EC. Guidelines for the calculation of the electricity from high-efficiency cogeneration.

Regulation (EC) no 510/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council setting emission performance standards for new light commercial vehicles as part of the Union's integrated approach to reducing CO₂ emissions from light-duty vehicles.
Action Plan for Energy Efficiency: Realising the Potential (COM(2006) 545). The Commission will develop minimum binding energy efficiency requirements for electricity generation facilities, heating and cooling for facilities operating with less than 20 megawatts of power, and possibly for more powerful facilities too.

Second Strategic Energy Review, COM(2008) 781 final (EC, 2008a). Strategic review on short, medium and long term targets on EU energy security. It is aimed at building energy solidarity among Member States. In July 2009, there was a follow-up where new rules were elaborated to improve the security of gas supplies in the framework of the internal gas market and to increase the transparency of investments in infrastructure.

A roadmap for the move to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050 (COM(2011) 112 final) presents actions in line with an 80-95 % greenhouse gas emission reduction by 2050.
Energy Efficiency Plan 2011 (COM (2011) 109 final) proposes additional measures to achieve the 20 % primary energy saving target by 2020.
Eco-Design Directive, COM(2008) 778 final/2. Directive on the intensification of the existing regulation on the energy-efficiency of products.
Energy 2020 — A strategy for competitive, sustainable and secure energy (COM(2010) 639 final). Energy efficiency is the first of the five priorities of the new energy strategy defined by the Commission.
Energy Performance Buildings, Directive 2002/91/EC. The Member States must apply minimum requirements as regards the energy performance of new and existing buildings, ensure the certification of their energy performance and require the regular inspection of boilers and air conditioning systems in buildings.

Energy Performance Buildings Directive 2010/31/EU (recast) strengthens the energy performance requirements of the 2002 Directive.

Directive on greenhouse gas emissions of fuels and biofuels, COM(2007) 18 final/2, sets targets for the greenhouse gas emissions from different fuel types (e.g. by improving refinery technologies) and allows the blending of up to 10 % of biofuels into diesel and petrol.

Targets

Directive 2012/27/EU on energy efficiency establishes a common framework of measures for the promotion of energy efficiency within the European Union in order to achieve the headline target of a 20 % reduction in primary energy consumption. Member States are requested to set indicative targets. It is up to the Member states whether they base their targets on primary energy consumption, final energy consumption, primary or final energy savings or energy intensity. Some of the mandatory measures included in the directive can be implemented through improvements in transformation efficiency.

Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources establishes a mandatory target of a 20 % share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption. This indicator does not directly monitor progress towards these targets but provides a quick snap-shot of the situation in Europe on these issues.

Methodology

Methodology for indicator calculation

Methodology and assumptions used for the Sankey diagram

The Sankey diagram shows the key energy flows (in million tonnes of oil equivalent) for the EU-28 based on Eurostat data (Figure 1). The left side of the diagram shows gross inland consumption with the net amount of energy imported compared with that produced indigenously. The diagram then shows the conversion of primary energy to secondary energies (heat, electricity and manufactured fuels) through transformation plants (power stations, district heating, CHP, oil refineries and other transformation plants) and the associated conversion losses. The right hand side of the diagram shows the final mix of energy consumption by different EU-28 energy users (including industry, transport, domestic, other final consumers and non-energy use). Note that renewables in transport for ENER036 include all biofuels whether sustainable or not. Only a proportion of the primary energy entering the energy system of a country flows through to the end user for consumption. There are various diversions and losses before energy reaches the final consumer because of distribution losses and use in the energy sector. The Sankey diagram is useful to capture the situation in a certain year but other indicators are needed to show the change in energy use over time.

The largest sources of loss are the conversion losses, where a proportion of the chemical energy in the fuel is not embodied in the power or heat leaving the generating plant, but is lost as unused waste heat. However, even before fuel is combusted for the generation of power and heat, some of it is diverted for non-energy purposes, for example the use of natural gas as a chemical feed stock in the chemical industry (non-energy purposes). Moreover, once generated, some of the power and heat is consumed by the plant operator for the purpose of running auxiliary equipment (consumption of the energy sector), and yet further down the energy supply chain some power or heat is lost as it is distributed to the end user (distribution losses). Both the energy industry's own use and distribution losses are shown in a single flow in Figure 1.

The Sankey diagram has been prepared using the data available from Eurostat. Figures can be extracted from the Eurostat Energy Balance Sheets for all EU-28 countries. The EU-28 data for Figure 1 (Sankey diagram) and Figure 2 have been derived from the following datasets with annual statistics for the supply, transformation and consumption of:

all products [nrg_100a],
oil [nrg_102a],
gas [nrg_103a],
electricity [nrg_105a],
heat [nrg_106a],
renewable energies [nrg_107a].

Supply
For each of the fossil fuels, the supply consists of:
- indigenous production; and
- net imports, i.e. imports minus exports
  The overall fuel supply for each fuel is then also affected by:
- stock change (can be negative); and
- recovered products (from other sources);
- exchanges and transfers, returns
The following are subtracted from overall supply:
- direct use; and
- international bunkers
Consumption

The final consumers are split into the following:
- industry,
- domestic,
- non-energy consumption,
- other final consumers (other sectors except domestic),
- transport,
- distribution losses plus consumption of the energy branch.
Transformation input

There are five transformations included in the diagram. The inputs in the following five transformations are:
- CHP
  Input into CHP = to ∑ transformation input into CHP (gas, solid fuels, all petroleum products, renewable energies)
- Power stations
  Input into power stations = ∑ transformation input into power stations (gas, solid fuels, total petroleum products, nuclear, renewable energies) - ∑ transformation input into CHPs (gas, solid fuels, all petroleum products, renewable energies)
- District Heating
  Input into district heating plants = ∑ transformation input into district heating (gas, solid fuels, all petroleum products, renewables energies)
- Refineries
  Input into refineries = net crude oil import + indigenous production of crude oil – direct use + stock change + recovered products + exchanges and transfers, returns
  The above are all for crude oil, feedstocks and other hydrocarbons, nrg_102a, product code: 3100.
- Other transformation plants
  Input into other transformation plants = ∑ transformation input into other transformation (gas, solid fuels, all petroleum products)
Transformation output

The outputs from the above five transformations are calculated as follows:
- CHP
  Output from CHP = ∑ transformation output from CHP (heat, electricity)
- Power stations
  Output from power stations = ∑ Transformation output from power stations (heat, electricity) - ∑ Transformation output from CHP (heat, electricity)
- District heating
  Output from district heating plants = transformation output from district heating
- Refineries
  Output from refineries = transformation output from refineries + exchanges and transfers, returns
  The amount of all petroleum products available for consumption also includes net import of all petroleum products.
- Other transformation plants
  Output from other transformation plants = ∑ transformation output from other transformations (derived gases, coke, brown coal briquettes)
Conversion losses

Conversion losses for transformation plants = transformation input – transformation output
Secondary energy

The transformation processes produce secondary fuels/energies (transformation output) in the Sankey diagram, namely electricity, heat and manufactured fuels (derived gases, petroleum products, coke and brown coal briquettes). Secondary energies are allocated to end-user consumer categories (point 2) in the same way as primary energy inputs and the supply of secondary energies are also affected in the same way as primary energy inputs (point 1). It should be noted that the transformation output of manufactured fuels from other transformations is not consistent with the manufactured fuels consumed by end-users. This is because a proportion of manufactured fuels are consequently used as input for further transformation (e.g. CHP), which is not captured in the Sankey diagram. Manufactured fuels consumed by another transformation plant after the fuel transformations are included as part of the input of gas, solid fuels and all petroleum products into these transformation plants. As a result the input and output from the other transformation plants box do not balance.

Technical information

Geographical coverage: EU-28 plus Norway, Iceland and Turkey .
The EEA had 33 member countries at the time of writing. These are the 28 European Union Member States plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland and Turkey. Where Eurostat data were not available, the data are not included in this indicator.
Methodology and frequency of data collection:

Data collected annually.
Eurostat definitions and concepts for energy statistics http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/energy/methodology

Official data (national total and sectoral emissions) reported to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and under the EU Monitoring Mechanism and EIONET. For the EU-28, these data are compiled by the EEA in the European greenhouse gas inventory report:
http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/european-union-greenhouse-gas-inventory-2012
Methodology of data manipulation:

Figure 1 Energy flow in the EU-28. Methodology and assumptions used for the Sankey diagram found earlier in this indicator.
Figure 2 EU-28 net imports by fuel.

The coding (used in the Eurostat database) and specific components of the indicator are:

Numerator
[imports - solid fuels – 2000] + [imports – oil (total petroleum products) - 3000] + [imports – natural gas - 4100] - exports (excluding EU-28 countries) for the same fuel

Denominator:
Gross inland energy consumption (GIEC) 100900 (tonnes of oil equivalent) + Marine International Bunkers 100800 (tonnes of oil equivalent).
For the separate product indicators the numerators/denominators are, respectively: solid fuels, total petroleum products and natural gas.

Qualitative information

Overall scoring – historic data (1 = no major problems, 3 = major reservations):

Relevance: 1
Accuracy: 1/2
Comparability over time: 1/2
Comparability over space: 1/2

Methodology for gap filling

No gap filling methodology was applied for this indicator.

Methodology references

No methodology references available.

Uncertainties

Methodology uncertainty

Data have traditionally been compiled by Eurostat through annual joint questionnaires, which are shared by Eurostat and the International Energy Agency, following a well established and harmonised methodology. Methodological information on the annual joint questionnaires and data compilation can be found on the Eurostat web page for metadata on energy statistics. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/en/nrg_quant_esms.htm and http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/en/nrg_indic_esms.htm. See also information related to the Energy Statistics Regulation https://www.energy-community.org/portal/page/portal/ENC_HOME/DOCS/2382177/Regulation147-2013.pdf.

CO₂ emission data are officially reported following agreed procedures. e.g. regarding the source/sector split under the EU Monitoring Mechanism Decision No 280/2004/EC.

Data sets uncertainty

Imports/exports represent all entries into/out of the national territory excluding transit quantities (notably via gas and oil pipelines). However, data on imports are generally taken from importer/exporter declarations; accordingly, they may differ from the data collected by the customs authorities and those included in foreign-trade statistics.

In the case of crude oil and petroleum products, imports represent the quantities delivered to the national territory and, in particular, those quantities:

destined for treatment on behalf of foreign countries;
only imported on a temporary basis;
imported and deposited in uncleared bonded warehouses;
imported and placed in special warehouses on behalf of foreign countries; and
imported from overseas regions and/or territories under national sovereignty.

Similarly, for exports those quantities:

destined for treatment in other countries;
only exported on a temporary basis;
exported and deposited in uncleared bonded warehouses;
exported and placed in special warehouses in foreign countries;
exported to overseas regions and/or territories under national sovereignty;
re-exported after treatment or transformation; and
supplied to national or foreign troops stationed abroad (in so far as secrecy permits this).

The efficiency of electricity production is calculated as the ratio of electricity output to total fuel input. However, the input to conventional thermal power plants cannot be disaggregated into separate inputs for heat and for electricity production. Therefore, the efficiency rate of electricity and heat production equals the ratio of both electricity and heat production to fuel input, which assumes there is an efficiency rate for heat production. Also, electricity data (unlike that for overall energy consumption) for 1990 refer to the western part of Germany only, so there is a break in the series from 1990-1992.

The share of energy consumption for a particular fuel could decrease even though the actual amount of energy used from that fuel grows, as the development of the share for a particular fuel depends on the change in its consumption relative to the total consumption of energy.
From an environmental point of view, however, the relative contribution of each fuel has to be put in a wider context. Absolute (as opposed to relative) volumes of energy consumption for each fuel are the key to understanding environmental pressures. These depend on the total amount of energy consumption as well as on the fuel mix used and the extent to which pollution abatement technologies are used.

Total energy consumption may not accurately represent the energy needs of a country (in terms of final energy demand). Fuel switching may, in some cases, have a significant effect in changing total energy consumption even though there is no change in (final) energy demand. This is because different fuels and different technologies convert primary energy into useful energy with different efficiency rates.

The estimate of imported/domestic CO₂ emissions uses an average EU-28 implied emission factor (tCO₂/TJ) for solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.

The IPCC believes that the uncertainty in CO₂ emission estimates from fuel use in Europe is likely to be less than ± 5 %. Total greenhouse gas emission trends are likely to be more accurate than the absolute emission estimates for individual years. The IPCC suggests that the uncertainty in total greenhouse emission trends is ± 4-5 %. Uncertainty estimates were calculated for the EU-15 for the first time in the EEA (2005). The results suggest that uncertainties at EU-15 level are between ± 4 % and 8 % for total EU-15 greenhouse gas emissions. For energy related greenhouse gas emissions, the results suggest uncertainties between ± 1 % (stationary combustion) and ± 11 % (fugitive emissions). For public electricity and heat production, the uncertainty is estimated to be ± 3 %. For the new Member States and some other EEA countries, uncertainties are assumed to be higher than for the EU-15 Member States because of data gaps.

Rationale uncertainty

Indicator uncertainty (scenarios)

Scenario analysis always includes many uncertainties and the results should, therefore, be interpreted with care. These include:

uncertainties related to future socioeconomic and other developments (e.g. GDP);
uncertainties in the underlying statistical and empirical data (e.g. on future technology costs and performance);
uncertainties in the representativeness of the indicator;
uncertainties in the dynamic behaviour of the energy system and its translation into models;
uncertainties in future fuel costs and the share of low carbon technologies in the future.

Data sources

Energy balances
provided by Statistical Office of the European Union (Eurostat)
Energy statistics (Eurostat)
provided by Statistical Office of the European Union (Eurostat)

Other info

DPSIR: Driving force
Typology: Descriptive indicator (Type A - What is happening to the environment and to humans?)

Indicator codes

CSI 045
ENER 036

Frequency of updates

This indicator is discontinued. No more assessments will be produced.

EEA Contact Info info@eea.europa.eu

Permalinks

Permalink to this version: 6fdb7914716a45c19b8fe9e0c9b9e8d6
Permalink to latest version: IND-351-en

Older versions

04 Dec 2015 - Overview of the European energy system

01 Jan 2015 - Overview of the European energy system

20 Mar 2013 - Overview of the European energy system

Geographic coverage

Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czechia Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom

Temporal coverage

1990 2005 2013-2014

For references, please go to https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/overview-of-the-european-energy-system-3/assessment-1 or scan the QR code.

PDF generated on 20 Apr 2024, 12:55 AM

Dates

First draft created:

07 Dec 2016, 02:18 PM

Publish date:

Last modified:

11 May 2021, 11:51 AM

Topics

Topics: Energy