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Indicator Assessment
Between 1990 and 2015, the common bird index decreased by 8 % in the 26 EU Member States that have bird population monitoring schemes. This decrease is slightly greater (9 %) if figures for Norway and Switzerland are included.
The decline in common farmland bird numbers in the same period was more pronounced, at 32 % (EU) and 30 % (EU plus Norway and Switzerland). The common forest bird index decreased by 3 % (EU) and 6 % (EU plus Norway and Switzerland) over the same period. Although the decline of all common birds has levelled off slightly since 2000, no trend towards recovery has been observed in the last years and the common farmland bird index continued to show a steep decline of 16 % between 2000 and 2015.
Grassland butterflies also showed a significant rate of decline in the 19 European countries where butterfly population monitoring schemes exist, at 34 % (EU) and 32 % (all countries). Between 2000 and 2015, the index decreased by 17 % (EU) and 16 % (EU + Norway and Switzerland).
Figure 1 shows that between 1990 and 2015, there was a decrease of 8 % in the index of common birds in the 26 EU Member States that have bird population monitoring schemes. This decrease is slightly greater (9 %) if figures for Norway and Switzerland are included. The decline in common farmland bird numbers over the same period was more pronounced, at 32 % (EU) and 30 % (EU plus Norway and Switzerland). The common forest bird index decreased by 3 % (EU) and 6 % (EU plus Norway and Switzerland) over the same period.
Although the decline of all common birds has levelled off slightly since 2000, no trend towards recovery has been observed and the common farmland bird index continued to show a steep decline of 16 % between 2000 and 2015.
While this indicator takes 1990 as a starting point, it should be borne in mind that significant decreases had already occurred before this date.
In spite of year-to-year fluctuations, which are typical features of butterfly populations, the index of grassland butterflies has declined significantly in the 19 European countries where butterfly population monitoring schemes exist. In 2015, the index was 34 % below its 1990 value in EU and 32 % below in the EU plus Norway and Switzerland (Figure 2). Between 2000 and 2015, the index decreased by 17 % (EU) and 16 % (EU + Norway and Switzerland). As with bird indices, the reductions observed since 1990 are on top of decreases before that time, although no structured data series for butterflies are available before 1990.
Birds and butterflies are sensitive to environmental change and their population numbers can reflect changes in ecosystems as well as in other animal and plant populations. Trends of bird and butterfly populations can, therefore, be excellent barometers of the health of the environment [1].
The long-term trends in farmland, forest and all common bird and grassland butterfly populations demonstrate that Europe has experienced a major decline in biodiversity associated with agro-ecosystems and grasslands [2. 7]. This has been primarily due to the loss, fragmentation and degradation of natural and semi-natural ecosystems. These changes have been mainly caused by the homogenisation and loss of habitat as a result of agricultural intensification, intensive forest management, land abandonment and urban sprawl. For example, increased use of pesticides results in reduced insect populations and seed production by plants, thereby reducing food for birds [3, 5]. Through habitat simplification, loss and fragmentation, birds lose their nesting sites, which adds to population decline [4]. The main driver of the decline in grassland butterflies is the change in rural land use. The loss of species-rich semi-natural grasslands has been particularly detrimental [8].
It continues to be a challenge to achieve the wide and effective deployment of conservation measures in European policies such as the Birds and the Habitats Directives, and the Water Framework Directive, as well as the environmental measures in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) designed to help populations recover at national and European scales.
It is difficult to forecast how soon biodiversity, as illustrated by the abundance of bird and grassland bird populations, will recover, as their state is influenced by a complex combination of environmental factors and policy measures. Substantial positive impacts of the CAP reform and the measures anticipated under the Multi-Annual Financial Framework 2014-2020 on common species associated with farmland might become visible in the 2020-2030 period, as long as these policies are implemented thoroughly and on a large scale throughout the EU. On the other hand, other factors that could adversely impact the outlook beyond 2020 include the negative impact of climate change on biodiversity and ecosystems, particularly on those specialist species groups that are dependent on non-intensive agriculture and forest ecosystems. The increased competition for land could also intensify agricultural production in the EU, through land take via urbanisation as well as for the production of renewable energy and biofuels.
This indicator shows trends in the abundance of common birds and butterflies across their European ranges over time. It is a composite of many species trend indices. A value of 100 is set for each species in the start year. If a species is added to the composite index after the start year, it is scaled to the index value at the year it was added to the indicator.
The unit used in an index of relative values with the value for 1990 set to 100.
The EU has taken action on the protection of biodiversity for a considerable number of years, for example, by adopting the Birds Directive 0409/1979 (updated in 2009/147/EC) and the Habitats Directive 0043/1992.
In line with the results of the tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), held in Nagoya, Japan (October 2010), a new EU biodiversity strategy, Our life insurance, our natural capital: an EU biodiversity strategy to 2020, was adopted by the European Commission in May 2011. This provided a framework for the EU to meet its own biodiversity objectives and global commitments as a party to the CBD. The strategy is built around six mutually supportive targets, which address the main drivers of biodiversity loss and aim to reduce the key pressures on nature and ecosystem services in the EU. Each target is further translated into a set of time-bound actions and other accompanying measures. The strategy also highlights the need to enhance contributions from other environmental policies and initiatives including sectoral integration across EU policies such as agriculture, fisheries, forestry, water, climate and energy. Target 3A of the strategy seeks to maximise 'areas under agriculture across grasslands, arable land and permanent crops that are covered by biodiversity-related measures under the Common agricultural policy (CAP) so as to ensure the status of species and habitats that depend on, or are affected by agriculture'.
In 2013, the Seventh Environment Action Programme (7th EAP) was adopted, which will guide European environment policy until 2020.
Moreover, this indicator needs to be seen in the context of the CAP, in particular its rural development policy 2014-2020. Relevant policy measures under the rural development policy include agri-environment-climate schemes and payments to farmers in areas with natural constraints or for adapted farming in areas with environmental restrictions, such as Natura 2000 sites.
Relation of the indicator to the focal area
a) Common birds
Each species reacts differently to the various anthropogenic pressures that potentially impact on population size. By monitoring a large enough number of populations of different bird species, different bio-geographical regions and areas subjected to different types and levels of pressure, this indicator has the potential to alert decision makers to the decline in populations due to environmental and geographic factors, as well as their potential drivers.
b) Butterflies
Insects are by far the most species-rich group of animals, representing over 50 % of terrestrial biodiversity. Contrary to most other groups of insects, butterflies are well documented, easy to recognise and popular with the general public. Butterflies use the landscape at a fine scale and react quickly to changes in management, intensification or abandonment. Furthermore, a sustainable butterfly population relies on a network of breeding habitats scattered over the landscape, where most species exist in a metapopulation structure. This makes butterflies especially vulnerable to habitat fragmentation. Moreover, many butterflies are highly sensitive to vegetation changes as a result of changes in the temperature and nutrient status of their habitats, and, because data from fine-scale mapping are available in many countries, they have been used in models predicting the impact of climate change on wildlife. Butterflies have been counted in Butterfly Monitoring Schemes since 1976.
EU 2020 Biodiversity Headline Target
a) Common birds
The data for this indicator originate from national monitoring data collected by the Pan-European Common Bird Monitoring Scheme (PECBMS). PECBMS is a partnership involving the European Bird Census Council, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, BirdLife International and Statistics Netherlands, which aims to deliver policy relevant biodiversity indicators for Europe
Trend information spanning different time periods is derived from annual national breeding bird surveys in 28 European countries (26 EU countries, except Croatia and Malta, plus Norway and Switzerland). Highly skilled volunteer ornithologists carry out counting and data collection. Data are collected nationally on an annual basis during the breeding season by common bird monitoring schemes. National bird monitoring data are gathered using several count methods (e.g. standardised point transects/line transects, territory mapping etc), using a variety of sampling strategies (from free choice of plots to stratified random sampling) and individual plot sizes vary within each country (from 1x1 km or 2x2 km squares or 2.5-degree grid squares to irregular polygons).
Indicators (multi-species indices) are computed using the MSI-tool (R-script) for calculating Multi-Species Indicators (MSI) and trends in MSIs. The method of calculation is described in Soldaat et al. (2017). Either European, EU or regional species indices including their standard errors are used as source data.
Country coverage (i.e. reflecting the availability of high-quality monitoring data from annually-operated common bird monitoring schemes employing generic survey methods and producing reliable national trends): Austria (since 1998), Belgium (Brussels since 1992; Flanders since 2007; Wallonia since 1990), Bulgaria (since 2004), Cyprus (since 2006), Czech Republic (since 1981), Denmark (since 1975), Estonia (since 1983), Finland (since 1975), France (since 1989), Germany (since 1989), Greece (since 2007), Hungary (since 1999), Ireland (since 1998), Italy (since 2000), Latvia (since 1995), Lithuania (since 1994), Luxembourg (since 2009), the Netherlands (since 1984), Norway (since 1996), Poland (since 2000), Portugal (since 2004), Romania (since 2006), Slovakia (since 1994), Slovenia (since 2008), Spain (since 1996), Sweden (since 1975), Switzerland (since 1999) and the United Kingdom (since 1966).
The current population index of common birds was produced for 168 species:
Common farmland birds:
Alauda arvensis, Alectoris rufa, Anthus campestris, Anthus pratensis, Bubulcus ibis, Burhinus oedicnemus, Calandrella brachydactyla, Carduelis cannabina, Ciconia ciconia, Corvus frugilegus, Emberiza cirlus, Emberiza citronella, Emberiza hortulana, Emberiza malanocephala, Falco tinnunculus, Galerida cristata, Galerida theklae, Hirundo rustica, Lanius collurio, Lanius minor, Lanius senator, Limosa limosa, Melanocorypha calandra, Miliaria calandra, Motacilla flava, Oenanthe hispanica, Passer montanus, Perdix perdix, Petronia petronia, Saxicola rubetra, Saxicola torquata, Serinus serinus, Streptopelia turtur, Sturnus unicolor, Sturnus vulgaris, Sylvia communis, Tetrax tetrax, Upupa epops, Vanellus vanellus.
Common forest birds:
Accipiter nisus, Anthus trivialis, Bombycilla garrulous, Bonasa bonasia, Carduelis spinus, Certhia brachydactyla, Certhia familiaris, Coccothraustes coccothraustes, Columba oenas, Cyanopica cyanus, Dendrocopos medius, Dendrocopos minor, Dryocopus martius, Emberiza rustica, Ficedula albicollis, Ficedula hypoleuca, Garrulus glandarius, Nucifraga caryocatactes, Parus ater, Parus cristatus, Parus montanus, Parus palustris, Phoenicurus phoenicurus, Phulloscopus bonelli, Phylloscopus collybita, Phylloscopus sibilatrix, Picus canus, Pyrrhula pyrrhula, Regulus ignicapilla, Regulus regulus, Serinus citrinella, Sitta europaea, Tringa ochropus, Turdus viscivorus.
Other common birds:
Acrocephalus arundinaceus, Acrocephalus palustris, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus, Acrocephalus scirpaceus, Actitis hypoleucus, Aegithalos caudatus, Alcedo atthis, Anas platyrhynchos, Apus apus, Ardea cinerea, Buteo buteo, Carduelis chloris, Carduelis flammea, Cettia cetti, Circus aeruginosus, Cisticola juncidis, Clamator glandarius, Columba palumbus, Corvus corax, Corvus corone, Corvus monedula, Cuculus canorus, Cygnus olor, Delichon urbica, Dendrocopos major, Dendrocopos syriacus, Egretta garzetta, Emberiza cia, Emberiza schoeniclus, Erithacus rubecula, Fringilla coelebs, Fringilla montifringilla, Fulica atra, Gallinago gallinago, Gallinula chloropus, Grus grus, Haematopus ostralegus, Hippolais icterina, Hippolais polyglotta, Hirundo daurica, Hirundo rupestris, Jynx torquilla, Larus ridibundus, Locustella fluviatilis, Locustella naevia, Lullula arborea, Luscinia luscinia, Luscinia megarhynchos, Luscinia svecica svecica, Merops apiaster, Motacilla alba, Motacilla cinerea, Muscicapa striata, Numenius arquata, Numenius phaeopus, Oenanthe cypriaca, Oenanthe oenanthe, Oriolus oriolus, Parus caeruleus, Parus major, Passer domesticus, Phasianus colchicus, Phoenicurus ochruros, Phylloscopus trochilus, Pica pica, Picus viridis, Pluvialis apricaria, Podiceps cristatus, Prunella modularis, Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax, Streptopylia decaocto, Sylvia atricapilla, Sylvia borin, Sylvia cantillans, Sylvia curruca, Sylvia hortensis, Sylvia melanocephala, Sylvia melanothorax, Sylvia nisoria, Sylvia undata, Tachybaptus ruficollis, Tadorna tadorna, Tetrao tetrix, Tringa erythropus, Tringa glareola, Tringa nebularia, Tringa tetanus, Troglodytes troglodytes, Turdus iliacus, Turdus merula, Turdus philomelos, Turdus pilaris, Turdus torquatus.
More information about species indices and trends is available at: https://www.ebcc.info/index.php?ID=631
Rationale for species selection:
The PECBMS European species classification (farmland, forest and other) has been developed over time as the indicators have been published and refined. The first publication was based on European trends of 47 common bird species, classified by national coordinators of monitoring schemes and other experts who met at the PECBMS workshop in Prague in 2001. For the second publication, based on an enlarged species sample, the classification was improved and was based on a publication by Tucker and Evans (1997), describing habitats and their importance for birds in Europe. Since 2007, when the third set of European indices and indicators was published, data on over 150 species have been used and the species classification has been based on assessments within bio-geographical regions in Europe. (See the PECBMS website for further details on the historic classification).
b) Butterflies
The field method is based on the British Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (Pollard and Yates, 1993), in use in the United Kingdom since 1976. Counts are made on a 5 m or 10 m wide line transect with homogeneous vegetation and vegetation structure. From March/April to September/October, all butterflies found 2.5 m to the left and right of the recorder and 5 m in front and above it should be counted under standardised weather conditions. The frequency varies from weekly to three or four visits during the season. Most of the sites are recorded by skilled volunteers. All recorders have a good knowledge of the butterfly fauna at their transect and their results are checked by butterfly experts. Van Swaay et al. (2008) showed that butterfly survey data can be used to generate biodiversity quality indices for sites such that trends in biodiversity quality can be deduced.
Indicators (multi-species indices) are computed using the MSI-tool (R-script) for calculating Multi-Species Indicators (MSI) and trends in MSIs. The method of calculation is described in Soldaat et al. (2017). Either European, EU or regional species indices including their standard errors are used as source data.
List of species
Widespread species: Ochlodes sylvanus, Anthocharis cardamines, Lycaena phlaeas, Polyommatus icarus, Lasiommata megera, Coenonympha pamphilus and Maniola jurtina.
Specialist species: Erynnis tages, Thymelicus acteon, Spialia sertorius, Cupido minimus, Phengaris arion, Phengaris nausithous, Polyommatus bellargus, Cyaniris semiargus, Polyommatus coridon and Euphydryas aurinia.
A Monte Carlo method is used to account for sampling error and when not all yearly index numbers of all species are available. The MSI-tool (R-script) is used to calculatef Multi-Species Indicators (MSI) and trends in MSIs.
The indicator is accompanied by measures of uncertainty, including smoothed trends and confidence intervals.
Data on population development of a species are assessed by calculating yearly indices and standard errors using the TRIM software (Pannekoek and Van Strien, 2005, http://www.bc-europe.eu/upload/EurButtInd/trim3man.pdf)
MAIN DISADVANTAGES OF THE INDICATOR
a. common birds
b. butterflies
For references, please go to https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/abundance-and-distribution-of-selected-species-7/assessment or scan the QR code.
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