Knowledge of the state of Greece’s biodiversity is still very poor (Tables 1 and 2). There are approximately 30 000 animal species (Legakis, 2004) with endemism reaching 17.1 % (Fauna Europaea, 2004), increasing to 64 % in specific animal groups (Legakis et al., 2006).

According to a 2009 assessment (Table 3), threatened species in Greece face α short-term or mid-term risk of extinction. The increased expected rate of avian species extinctions in Greece (Red List Index) over the last 17 years (Table 4, Figure 1) is related mainly to the loss of natural habitats and their structural or functional degradation, pollution and disturbance. Most threatened avian groups are wetland birds and raptors.

The reduction of cattle genetic diversity is alarming. Only 0.64 % of the total cattle population consists of native breeds. This reflects an almost complete homogenisation of the cattle genetic pool, restricting the alternatives for future genetic improvements and mitigation of  disease outbreaks or changing climatic conditions. Sheep genetic diversity is high, with 92.2 % of the population consisting of native breeds, but 61 % of breeds are endangered (Table 5).

In 2008, Greece hosted 538 terrestrial invasive alien species (Figure 2). In 2009, Greek marine and brackish waters and inland freshwater systems hosted 193 and 87 aquatic invasive alien species, respectively (Figures 3 and 4; Table 6).

The Marine Trophic Index of Hellenic Seas has not significantly changed since 1950 (Figure 5). The downward trend in the period 1980-2004 may be due to the end of the positive effects of technology and eutrophication on fisheries catches.

Greek legislation provides for protection of a large number of native flora and wildlife species (916 plants, 139 vertebrates and 82 invertebrates). However, the share of habitats and species of Community interest, whose conservation status is reported as ’inadequate’ or ’unknown’, is still high (Table 7).

In 2007, the total area of nationally designated sites was around 20 432 km² - around 15.5 % of the total area of Greece and around 2 % of the total European nationally designated site area (e.g Northern Pindos, Mount Nympheon, National Marine Park of Zakynthos, National Park of Dadia. By 2009, the total area of nationally designated sites covered 23 999 044 km² (Figure 6; Tables 8 and 9).

The main drivers of biodiversity decline in Greece are related to past and current policies on land use, agriculture, fisheries, forestry, transport and tourism, and to the prevailing consumption and production patterns of contemporary Greek society. The most important pressures on threatened avifauna in Greece are given in Table 10.

Land take

Urban sprawl and land taken up by development activities in Greece (1990-2000) has increased by 15 %. 63% of the land uptake has affected natural (23 %) and semi-natural (37 %) areas with consequent impacts on species and ecosystems (Figure 7).

Climate change

Species that are quite abundant in the Greek seas (e.g. anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) and sardine (Sardinella aurita and Sardina pilchardus)), are affected by regional temperature variations, riverine inputs and wind-induced mixing. Impacts of climate change on forest biodiversity are linked to temperature increase and precipitation decrease and to forest fires (MINENV, 2010).

Worst Invasive Alien Species

18 terrestrial species in Greece are among the 100 Worst Invasive Alien Species (WIAS), according to the DAISIE database (2008) (Table 11). The most important pressure of terrestrial WIAS in Greece is on natural ecosystems, through competition or predation on existing species and contamination through the spread of diseases.

Shipping is the second-most important vector of the primary and secondary spread of alien species (23 %) in Greek marine waters, preceded by entry through the Suez Canal (44 %). Aquaculture is the most important mode of introduction of freshwater alien species in Greece (Zenetos et al., 2009). In 2009, Hellenic waters hosted 60 species of the aquatic WIAS threatening biodiversity in the Mediterranean, a 20 % increase since 2000 (Table 12).

Nutrient loads

In the Aegean Sea, coastal waters with high concentrations of inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus are linked to anthropogenic activities, sewage outfalls, and riverine outflows (Figure 8). A comparison of nutrient loads between 1995 and 2007 is given in Table 13 and Figures 9-12.

Technology and eutrophication

Α general expansion of the Hellenic fisheries took place during the mid 1970s to the mid 1980s, due to the modernisation of the Hellenic fishing fleet and the effect of man-made eutrophication on the productivity of coastal waters. The positive effects appear to have subsided over the last 24 years.

During the last 17 years, population trends for 50 % of the threatened avian species are very negative to negative (Handrinos et al., 2009), implying the urgent need for targeted legislative measures and conservation actions. 

The alarming reduction of cattle genetic diversity and the classification of several cattle and sheep breeds as endangered reflect the urgent need for a drastic shift in relevant policies, before an irreversible homogenisation of the livestock genetic pool occurs.

Mediterranean climate ecosystems are considered among the most threatened by invasive alien species (Hulme et al., 2008b). The likelihood of future higher air temperatures and increasing drought periods, which are expected to change fire regimes (Piñol et al., 1998; Lavorel et al., 1998; Arianoutsou, 2007) could favor the establishment of more alien species (Vilà et al., 2001) or the further expansion of established ones, influencing ecosystems and the economy.

The speed of marine alien species spread and response to global warming is apparently much faster than temperature increase itself, presenting an important warning for the future of Mediterranean Sea biodiversity.

Greek legislation (Table 14) provides for the protection of flora and fauna. Protected areas (Table 8) represent an instrument for species conservation. Greece continues to extend the protected areas network (Figure 6), holding a large variety of Mediterranean habitats included in the reference list of the Natura 2000 initiative. The Natura 2000 network covers 21 % of the Greek land surface and 5.5 % of the territorial waters. Other measures for species protection include regulation on the hunting period, a binding fishing code, access restrictions, limited user rights, and compensations for income loss.

However, a crucial step towards a targeted and planned protection of the natural environment and biodiversity is the National Biodiversity Strategy. This is currently being re-evaluated and includes the objectives of ‘Contribution to the response to climate change, adaptation to it and reduction of the impacts on biodiversity through adaptation actions.’

Greece has no stand-alone sustainable agriculture strategy. The integration of nature conservation objectives follows rules and instruments set under the EU Common Agricultural Policy.

Greek fisheries policy is based on sustainable management objectives and is heavily influenced by the EU Common Fisheries Policy.

* Liza haematocheila and Micropterus salmoides can be found both in aquatic marine and aquatic inland environment.

JMD: Joint Ministerial Decision.

Figure 1.          Red list index (RLI) for avian species survival in Greece in 1992 and 2009.
(RLI₁₉₉₂=0.64, RLI2009=0.68. The smaller the RLI, the greater the number of Greek avian species with an increased extinction risk (Handrinos et al., 2009))

Figure 2.          Cumulative number of alien species established in the terrestrial environment,

                         Greece, 2008

Figure 3.          Cumulative number of alien species established in the marine environment,

                         Greece, 2008

Figure 4.          Cumulative number of alien species established in inland freshwaters,

                         Greece, 2008

Figure 6.          Growth of nationally designated protected areas in Greece (cumulative area)

Figure 7.          Relative contribution of land-cover categories in Greece taken by urban and other artificial land development, 1990 – 2000

 

Figure 8.          Ecological quality of coastal waters based on seasonal (winter and summer) concentrations of PO₄, NO₃ and NH₄ (Pavlidou et al., 2005)

            Unpolluted:        <0.07 μΜ phosphate; <0.62 μM for nitrate and <0.55 μM for ammonium;

            Low Polluted:     0.07-0.14 μM for phosphate; 0.62-0.65 μM for nitrate and 0.55-1.05 μM for ammonium;

            Moderately Polluted: 0.14-0.68 μM for phosphate; 0.65-1.09 μM for nitrate and 1.05-2.2 μM for ammonium;

            Highly Polluted: >0.68 μM for phosphate; >1.19 for nitrate and > 2.20 for ammonium.

Figure 9.          Mean Integrated values of phoshate in Hellenic coastal waters, 1995 and 2007

Figure 10.         Mean Integrated values of nitrate in Hellenic coastal waters, 1995 and 2007

 Figure 11.         Mean Integrated values of ammonium in coastal areas of Greece, 1995 and 2007

Figure 12.         Mean Integrated values of DIN:P ratios in Hellenic coastal waters, 1995 and 2007

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