Chapter 4 - Air

4.1 - Introduction
4.2 - Urban and Local Air Pollution

4.2.1 - Air quality in large European cities
4.2.1.1 - Winter smog
4.2.1.2 - Summer smog
4.2.1.3 - Long-term exposure
4.2.1.4 - Countermeasures
4.2.2 - 'Hot spot' air pollution
4.2.2.1 - Air pollution from road transport
4.2.2.2 - Urban pollution from industry
4.2.3 - Population exposure to air pollution
4.2.4 - Exposure of materials, buildings and culture heritage to air pollution
4.2.5 - Exposure to toxic air pollution from industry
4.2.6 - Conclusions

4.3 - Regional and Transboundary Air Pollution

4.3.1 - Acid deposition
4.3.2 - Photo-oxidants and photochemical smog episodes
4.3.3 - Winter smog episodes
4.3.4 - Aerosol particles
4.3.5 - Metals and persistent organic pollutants
4.3.6 - Visibility degradation by air pollution
4.3.7 - Radioactivity
4.3.8 - Atmospheric inputs to other media
4.3.8.1 - Input to coastal seas
4.3.8.2 - Inputs to forest soils, surface waters and ecosystems
4.3.9 - Conclusions

4.4 - Global Air Pollution

4.4.1 - Long-lived air pollutants
4.4.2 - The changing troposphere
4.4.3 - Depletion of stratospheric ozone
4.4.4 - Global climate change
4.4.5 - Conclusions

4.5 - Summary and Conclusions

4.5.1 - Urban air pollution
4.5.2 - Regional air pollution
4.5.3 - Global air pollution
4.5.4 - Overall