Emissions and energy use in large combustion plants in Europe

Between 2004 and 2021, emissions from large combustion plants in the EU decreased: sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and dust by 92%, and nitrogen oxides (NOx) by 70%. Declines in emissions and improvements in environmental performance were largely driven by European policy, which sets legally binding emission limit values. The amount of fossil fuels used decreased by 35%, as energy production shifts to climate-friendly sources and coal is no longer the most used fuel in large combustion plants in Europe. Stricter emission limit values and policies aimed at increasing the use of renewable or cleaner fuels are expected to drive further declines in combustion plant emissions in coming years.

Emission of dust, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide from large combustion plants in the EU-27

As of 2021, large combustion plants (LCPs) are responsible for almost 40% of the EU’s electricity production capacity. These largely depend on fossil fuels, resulting in the emission of pollutants to air, water and land, with damaging effects on ecosystems. To mitigate the environmental impact, EU policy aims to reduce LCP emissions.

Emissions from LCPs decreased significantly over the period 2004-2021: SO₂ by 92% and NO_x by 70%_. This happened throughout the period, but two main turning points are apparent. The first, over the period 2007-2009, when LCP operators had the double effect of needing to adapt their plants to new emission limit values from the LCP Directive and the financial crisis that started at the end of 2008. The second turning point, around 2015-2016, coincided with the moment operators had to comply with stricter limits as provided by the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED), which entered into full force that year.

LCPs vary significantly in size, from 50MWt to even larger than 2,000MWt. Declines in emissions correspond to a significant improvement in environmental performance across all LCP sizes, particularly among the very large ones, which, although including only 21% of LCPs, accounts for 70% of installed capacity.

These reductions demonstrate the value of European policy in driving improvements in the environmental performance of LCPs, with LCP operators adopting pollution reduction measures, more efficient operating processes and end-of-pipe pollution abatement techniquesto comply with legislation.

In 2021, 3,228 LCPs, were covered by the scope of the IED. European countries rely to different degrees on combustion plants to meet their energy demands. However, generally, the number of plants in a given country is proportional to its size and population. Czechia, Lithuania, Malta and Slovakia did not report 2021 data, and therefore the number of plants in Europe is estimated to be some 3,414 plants, taking into account the latest number from these four countries.

The fuel mix plays a key role in emission generation, with coal and liquid fuels substantially dirtier than other options. Shifting from fossil fuels to other energy carriers and sources is also paramount to achieve climate mitigation goals. Changes to the fuel mix have also contributed to emission reductions over the period, along with other factors, including broader economic and societal changes, changes to international fuel prices and industry initiatives. In 2021 natural gas was the major fuel input for the third year in a row, confirming the progressive phase-out from coal. However, this phase-out is less rapid over the last two years of available data. Natural gas and coal combined, two fossil fuels, are still very significant in the overall mix covering almost 75% of the total fuel input (Figure 2) of the combustion sector. Further emission reductions are expected in the coming years as a result of new, stricter IED permits, and energy and climate change mitigation policies, driving the use of renewable or cleaner fuels and aimed at achieving the EU’s ambition of becoming climate neutral by 2050 .

Fuel consumption in the EU-27, per fuel type

Overall, LCP fuel consumption decreased by 35% between 2004 and 2020 (Figure 2). The majority of this decrease occurred after 2010 and can be largely attributed to a decrease in the consumption of fossil fuels, particularly coal (down 48% since 2010) and liquid fuels (down 44% since 2010). This could reflect a shift in Europe’s energy system from fossil fuels to renewable sources, with natural gas still playing a bridging role in this transition boasting greater consumption (38% of the total) than coal for the third year in a row in 2021. However, coal consumption remains the second largest contributor to total LCP fuel consumption (36% of the total). Achieving the goals set by the European Green Deal will imply abandoning of fossil fuels much faster, including natural gas, so the trends must accelerate in the coming years.

All EU countries have reduced coal use over the period, with five countries (Germany, Spain, Italy, Greece and Poland) contributing for around 70% of the reduction in coal consumption (Figure 2) in Europe in 2021. However, coal still accounts for more than 50% of the fuel input in large combustion plant in five countries (Bulgaria, Estonia, Poland, Romania and Slovenia). Another interesting phenomenon is the consistent increase of biomass as a fuel input (72% since 2010). While this has its origin in climate mitigation goals, it can result in increases of air pollution, particularly particulate matter, and volatile organic compounds .

Supporting information

Definition

This indicator tracks trends for the so-called Large Combustion Plants' (LCPs) emissions of SO₂, NO_x and dust, as well as the evolution of the energy mix used in these plants since 2004. LCPs comprise industrial combustion plants with a total rated thermal input equal to or greater than 50 MW.

The geographical coverage comprises the 27 EU Member States (EU-27) (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Sweden).

The temporal coverage is 2004-2019. Data for the period 2004-2015 were reported under Directive 2001/80/EC on large combustion plants, while for 2016 onwards they were reported under Directive 2010/75/EU on industrial emissions. The requirements are not identical, and it is expected for data from 2016 onwards to have a slightly broader scope in terms of plants included.

Methodology

Methodology for indicator calculation

Queries are applied to the Industrial Emissions Database to extract and aggregate emissions reported individually for each LCP in Europe to produce Figure 1. In a similar manner, queries extract and aggregate fuel use data to produce Figure 2.

Fig. 1: Emissions are indexed with reference to 2004 levels. The exact formula is: emissions of pollutant x for the current year/emissions for pollutant x in 2004) × 100.

Fig. 2: Total fuel consumptions per type are summed and provided in the graph. As the data were not reported in the same way before and after 2016, the category 'coal' is the result of the sum of all solid fuels reported.

Methodology for gap filling

No gap filling was performed.

Methodology references

No methodology references available.

Policy/environmental relevance

Justification for indicator selection

No rationale has been identified for this indicator.

Scientific references

No rationale references available.

Context description

Anthropogenic emissions of SO₂, NO_x and dust all contribute to air quality problems in Europe. Excess deposition of sulphur and nitrogen compounds can lead to disturbances in the functioning and structure of ecosystems by, for example, causing the acidification of soils and waters as well as, in the case of nitrogen, the eutrophication of nutrient-poor ecosystems such as grasslands.

LCPs use large amounts of fuels, mostly fossil fuels, to produce useful forms of energy. These plants inevitably generate a number of residues, waste products and emissions to all environmental media (air, water and soil). Emissions from LCPs constitute a significant proportion of total anthropogenic emissions and are considered one of the main environmental pressures from LCPs.

In that context, policy has regulated these plants for decades now. Between 2004 and 2015, two pieces of EU law were in place: the LCP Directive and the IPPC Directive. This EU legislation imposed specific limit values on emissions of NO_x, SO₂ and dust from plants with a thermal rated input equal to or greater than 50 MW. Since 1 January 2016, this legislation has been replaced by the IED.

The aim of EU policy on LCPs is to reduce emissions to air, water and land, including measures related to waste, to achieve a high level of protection of the environment as a whole. The focus with regard to LCPs is to reduce emissions of acidifying pollutants, particles and ozone precursors while also covering other environmental concerns (e.g. mercury emissions).

Targets

No targets have been specified.

Methodology uncertainty

This indicator covers the EU-27 countries. However, there are no data for Croatia for 2004-2009. The data for Croatia have not been gap filled, and in the years of reporting Croatia contributed less than 1% of emissions and fuel consumption to the EU-27 total. This lack of data is thus considered a minor distortion of the overall trend.

As indicated, reporting requirements were not identical before and after 2016, which is also considered a minor distortion of the trend.

Data sets uncertainty

Although reporting requirements began in 2004, it is possible that the data for the first reported period (2004-2006) contain some gaps.

Rationale uncertainty

No uncertainty has been specified.

Data sources and providers

Metadata

DPSIRTopicsTagsTemporal coverageGeographic coverage

TypologyUN SDGsUnit of measureFrequency of disseminationContact

References and footnotes

EU, 2001, Directive 2001/80/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2001 on the limitation of emissions of certain pollutants into the air from large combustion plants

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EU, 2010, Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention and control), OJ L 334, 17.12.2010, p. 17-119.

^a^b
EEA, 2019, Greening the power sector: benefits of an ambitious implementation of Europe’s environment and climate policies, EEA Briefing, European Environment Agency.

^a^b
EC 2021, (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0550) accessed March 27, 2023.

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EEA, 2022, 'National emissions reported to the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention) — European Environment Agency', (https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/national-emissions-reported-to-the-convention-on-long-range-transboundary-air-pollution-lrtap-convention-16) accessed November 18, 2022.

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