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Air pollution by ozone (CLIM 006) - Assessment published Sep 2008
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Climate variability and change has contributed to an increase in average ozone concentrations in central and South-Western Europe (1-2 % per decade). During the summer of 2003, exceptionally long-lasting and spatially extensive episodes of high ozone concentrations occurred, mainly in the first half of August. These episodes appear to have been associated with the extraordinarily high temperatures over wide areas of Europe and illustrate the expected more frequent exceedances of the ozone information threshold under projected climate change. The projected climate-induced increase in ozone levels may result in current ozone abatement policies becoming inadequate.
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Air pollution by ozone
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EEA-32 ammonia (NH3) emissions (APE 003) - Assessment published Feb 2010
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EEA-32 emissions of NH 3 have declined by 22% between the years 1990 and 2007. Agriculture was responsible for 93% of NH 3 emissions in 2007. The reduction in emissions within the agricultural sector is primarily due to a reduction in livestock numbers (especially cattle) since 1990, changes in the handling and management of organic manures and from the decreased use of nitrogenous fertilisers. The reductions achieved in the agricultural sector have been marginally offset by the increased emissions which have occurred during this period in sectors such as transport and to a lesser extent the energy industry and other (non-energy) sectors. In general, Member States have made excellent progress in reducing emissions below the level of their respective emission ceilings set in the National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD). Twenty-one of the EU-27 Member States have already achieved their ceilings. Only Finland, Germany and Spain still need to make significant further reductions in order to meet their respective ceilings under the NECD. Environmental context: NH 3 contributes to acid deposition and eutrophication. The subsequent impacts of acid deposition can be significant, including adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems in rivers and lakes and damage to forests, crops and other vegetation. Eutrophication can lead to severe reductions in water quality with subsequent impacts including decreased biodiversity, changes in species composition and dominance, and toxicity effects. NH 3 also contributes to the formation of secondary particulate aerosols, an important air pollutant due to its adverse impacts on human health.
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EEA-32 ammonia (NH3) emissions
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EEA-32 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions (APE 002) - Assessment published Feb 2010
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EEA-32 emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO x ) have decreased by 31% between 1990 and 2007. In 2007, the most significant sources of NO x emissions were the road transport sector (36%), combustion processes from within the energy industries sector (21%) and industrial energy use (15%) and the non-road transport sector (16%). The largest reduction of emissions since 1990 has occurred in the road transport sector. These reductions have been achieved despite the general increase in activity within this sector since the early 1990s and have primarily been achieved as a result of fitting three-way catalysts to petrol fuelled vehicles. In the electricity/energy production sector reductions have also occurred, in these instances as a result of measures such as the introduction of combustion modification technologies (such as use of low NO x burners), implementation of flue-gas abatement techniques (e.g. NO x scrubbers and selective (SCR) and selective non-catalytic (SNCR) reduction techniques) and fuel-switching from coal to gas. The National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD) specifies NO x emission ceilings for Member States that must be met by 2010. In general, the newer Member States have made substantially better progress towards meeting their respective NOx ceilings than the older Member States of the EU-15. Eleven of the twelve post-2004 Member States have already reduced emissions beyond what is required under the NECD, or are very close to doing so (Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia). In contrast, only one EU-15 Member State (Portugal) has emissions within its respective national ceiling. Many Member States therefore must make significant cuts to NO x emissions in the immediate coming years if they are to meet their obligations under the NECD. Environmental context: NO x contributes to acid deposition and eutrophication. The subsequent impacts of acid deposition can be significant, including adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems in rivers and lakes and damage to forests, crops and other vegetation. Eutrophication can lead to severe reductions in water quality with subsequent impacts including decreased biodiversity, changes in species composition and dominance, and toxicity effects. It is NO 2 that is associated with adverse affects on human health, as at high concentrations it can cause inflammation of the airways. NO 2 also contributes to the formation of secondary particulate aerosols and tropospheric ozone in the atmosphere - both are important air pollutants due to their adverse impacts on human health.
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EEA-32 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions
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EEA-32 Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) emissions (APE 004) - Assessment published Feb 2010
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EEA-32 emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) have decreased by 41% since 1990. In 2007, the most significant sources of NMVOC emissions were the 'other (non energy)' sector (37%) (comprising activities such as paint application, dry-cleaning and other use of solvents), followed by the road transport sector (15%). The decline in emissions since 1990 has primarily been due to reductions achieved in the road transport sector (due to the introduction of vehicle catalytic converters and the switching from petrol to diesel cars) and in the 'other (non-energy)' sector (a result of the introduction of legislative measures limiting for example the use and emissions of solvents). The EU-27 Member States have, in general, made good progress towards reducing emissions in line with their obligations under the National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD). Sixteen Member States (Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Malta, the Netherlands, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom) have already reduced their national NMVOC emissions below the level of the emission ceilings set in the NECD. However, three Member States (France Germany, Spain and Portugal) have emissions still significantly above their respective emission ceilings and thus must make significant reductions over the coming years if they are to comply with the NECD. Environmental context: Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) are a collection of organic compounds that differ widely in their chemical composition but display similar behaviour in the atmosphere. NMVOCs are emitted into the atmosphere from a large number of sources including combustion activities, solvent use and production processes. NMVOCs contribute to the formation of ground level (tropospheric) ozone. In addition, certain NMVOC species such as benzene and 1,3 butadiene are hazardous to human health. Quantifying the emissions of total NMVOCs provides an indicator of the emissions of the most hazardous NMVOCs.
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EEA-32 Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) emissions
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EEA-32 Sulphur dioxide SO2 emissions (APE 001) - Assessment published Feb 2010
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EEA-32 emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) have decreased by 69% between 1990 and 2007. In 2007, the most significant source of SO 2 emissions was the energy industries sector (69%), followed by emissions occurring from 'Other (Non Energy)' (20%) and industrial energy use (12%). The reduction in emissions since 1990 has been achieved as a result of a combination of measures, including fuel-switching in energy-related sectors away from high sulphur-containing solid and liquid fuels to low sulphur fuels such as natural gas, the fitting of flue gas desulphurisation abatement technology in industrial facilities and the impact of European Community directives relating to the sulphur content of certain liquid fuels. Seventeen of the EU-27 Member States have already reduced their national SO 2 emissions below the level of the emission ceilings set in the National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD), while a number of others are close to meeting their ceilings. However, a small number of Member States still need to make significant further reductions in order to meet their respective ceilings under the NECD. Environmental context: Sulphur dioxide is emitted when fuels containing sulphur are combusted. It is a pollutant which contributes to acid deposition which in turn can lead to potential changes occurring in soil and water quality. The subsequent impacts of acid deposition can be significant, including adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems in rivers and lakes and damage to forests, crops and other vegetation. SO 2 emissions also contribute to formation of particulate matter in the atmosphere, an important air pollutant in terms of its adverse impact on human health.
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EEA-32 Sulphur dioxide SO2 emissions
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EEA32 Heavy metal (HM) emissions (APE 005) - Assessment published Feb 2010
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Across the EEA-32 countries, emissions of lead have decreased by 88%, mercury by 57% and lead by cadmium by 56% between 1990 and 2007. For each substance, the most significant sources in 2007 are from energy-related sources associated with fuel combustion, particularly from public power and heat generating facilities and in industrial facilities. Much progress has been made since the early 1990s in reducing point source emissions of cadmium and lead (e.g. emissions from industrial facilities). This has been achieved through improvements in for example abatement technologies for wastewater treatment, incinerators and in metal refining and smelting industries , and in some countries by the closure of older industrial facilities as a consequence of economic re-structuring. In the case of mercury, the observed decrease in emissions may be largely attributed to improved controls on mercury cells used in industrial processes (e.g. in the chlor-alkali process) including the replacement of old mercury cells by diaphragm or membrane cells, and the general decline of coal use across Europe as a result of fuel switching. The promotion of unleaded petrol within the EU and in other EEA member countries through a combination of fiscal and regulatory measures has been a particular success story. EU Member States have for example completely phased out the use of leaded petrol, a goal that was regulated by Directive 98/70/EC. From being the largest source of lead in 1990 when it contributed more than 70% of total emissions, emissions from the road transport sector decreased since then by more than 95%. Nevertheless, the road transport sector still remains an important source of lead, contributing around 25% of total lead emission in the EEA-32 region. However over the last 5 year period little progress has been made in reducing emissions further; total emissions of lead have remained largely constant. Environmental context: Heavy metals (such as cadmium, lead and mercury) are recognised as being toxic to biota. All have the quality of being progressively accumulated higher up the food chain, such that chronic exposure of lower organisms to much lower concentrations can expose predatory organisms, including humans, to potentially harmful concentrations. In humans they are also of direct concern because of their toxicity, their potential to cause cancer and their potential ability to cause harmful effects at low concentrations. The relative toxic/carcinogenic potencies of heavy metals are compound specific. Specifically, exposure to heavy metals has been linked with developmental retardation, various cancers and kidney damage. Metals are persistent throughout the environment, and cadmium, lead and mercury are among those heavy metals that are already a focus of international and EU action. These substances tend not just to be confined to a given geographical region, and thus are not always open to effective local control. For example, in the case of cadmium, much is found in fine particles which do not readily dry deposit, rather having long residence times in the atmosphere and hence are subject to long-range transport processes.
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EEA32 Heavy metal (HM) emissions
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EEA32 Persistent organic pollutant (POP) emissions (APE 006) - Assessment published Feb 2010
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EEA-32 emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), an important group of chemicals categorised as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), have decreased by 63% between 1990 and 2007. While the majority of individual countries report PAH emissions have fallen during this period, eight countries report increased emissions have occurred.
Important emission sources of PAH, include residential combustion processes (open fires, coal and wood burning for heating purposes etc), industrial metal production processes, and the road transport sector. Emissions from these sources have all declined since 1990 as a result of decreased residential use of coal, improvements in abatement technologies for metal refining and smelting, and stricter regulations on emissions from the road transport sector.
In 2007, the most significant source of PAHs was the 'other energy' sector accounting for 41% of total PAH emissions. This sector comprises emissions caused by fuel combustion mainly from the residential, commercial and institutional buildings sectors.
Environmental context: Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are chemical substances that persist in the environment, have potential to bioaccumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment. This group of substances includes unintentional by-products of industrial processes (such as PAHs, dioxins and furans) pesticides (such as DDT), and industrial chemicals (such as polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs). All share the property of being progressively accumulated higher up the food chain, such that chronic exposure of lower organisms to much lower concentrations can expose predatory organisms, including humans and wildlife, to potentially harmful concentrations. In humans they are also of concern for human health because of their toxicity, their potential to cause cancer and their ability to cause harmful effects at low concentrations. Their relative toxic/carcinogenic potencies are compound specific. POPs have also been shown to possess a number of toxicological properties. The major concern is often centred on their possible role in carcinogenic, immunological and reproductive effects but more recently concern has also been expressed over their possible harmful effects on human development.
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EEA32 Persistent organic pollutant (POP) emissions
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Emissions of acidifying substances (version 1) (CSI 001) - Assessment published Dec 2006
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Emissions of acidifying gases have decreased significantly in most EEA member countries. Between 1990 and 2004, emissions decreased by 46% in the EU-15 and by 62% in the EU-10, despite increased economic activity (GDP).
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Emissions of acidifying substances (version 1)
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Emissions of acidifying substances (version 1) (CSI 001) - Assessment published Mar 2008
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Aggregated emissions of acidifying gases (NH 3 , NO x , SO 2 ) have decreased significantly in most EEA member countries between 1990 and 2005 (Figure 1) despite increased economic activity (GDP) occurring during this period. However, meeting the 2010 NO x emission ceilings is likely to be a problem for a number of countries. Emissions in the EU-15 Member States decreased by 47% since 1990 from 1 025 kt to 539 kt (Figure 2). The EU-15 is well on track on meeting its overall 2010 NECD target for acidifying pollutants. Between 1900 and 2005 emissions of acidifying pollutants in the new EU-12 countries declined significantly from 503 kt to 206 kt, a reduction of 59% (Figure 3). The new EU-12 is also on track on meeting its overall 2010 NECD target for acidifying substances.
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Emissions of acidifying substances (version 1)
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Emissions of acidifying substances (version 2) (CSI 001) - Assessment published Dec 2008
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Aggregated emissions of acidifying pollutants (nitrogen oxides (NO x ), sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) and ammonia (NH 3 ) have decreased significantly in most of the EEA member countries between 1990 and 2006. This decrease has been achieved despite the increased rates of economic activity that have occurred during this period. Across the EEA-32 region, emissions of acidifying pollutants decreased from 1 549 kt to 790 kt between 1990 and 2006 - a 49% reduction. The EU-27 as a whole is on track to meet its target to reduce emissions from acidifying pollutants based on an aggregation of its NEC Directive ceilings for the three individual pollutants. However, a number of individual Member States anticipate missing their emission ceilings for one or more of the individual acidifying pollutants.
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Emissions of acidifying substances (version 2)
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