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Crop-yield variability (CLIM 032) - Assessment published Sep 2008
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Climate and its variability are largely responsible for variations in crop suitability and productivity in Europe. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the variability of crop yields has increased as a consequence of extreme climatic events, e.g. the summer heat of 2003 and the spring drought of 2007. As a consequence of climatic change, such events are projected to increase in frequency and magnitude, and crop yields to become more variable. Changes in farming practices and land management can act as risk-mitigating measures.
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Crop-yield variability
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EEA-32 ammonia (NH3) emissions (APE 003) - Assessment published Feb 2010
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EEA-32 emissions of NH 3 have declined by 22% between the years 1990 and 2007. Agriculture was responsible for 93% of NH 3 emissions in 2007. The reduction in emissions within the agricultural sector is primarily due to a reduction in livestock numbers (especially cattle) since 1990, changes in the handling and management of organic manures and from the decreased use of nitrogenous fertilisers. The reductions achieved in the agricultural sector have been marginally offset by the increased emissions which have occurred during this period in sectors such as transport and to a lesser extent the energy industry and other (non-energy) sectors. In general, Member States have made excellent progress in reducing emissions below the level of their respective emission ceilings set in the National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD). Twenty-one of the EU-27 Member States have already achieved their ceilings. Only Finland, Germany and Spain still need to make significant further reductions in order to meet their respective ceilings under the NECD. Environmental context: NH 3 contributes to acid deposition and eutrophication. The subsequent impacts of acid deposition can be significant, including adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems in rivers and lakes and damage to forests, crops and other vegetation. Eutrophication can lead to severe reductions in water quality with subsequent impacts including decreased biodiversity, changes in species composition and dominance, and toxicity effects. NH 3 also contributes to the formation of secondary particulate aerosols, an important air pollutant due to its adverse impacts on human health.
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EEA-32 ammonia (NH3) emissions
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Emissions of acidifying substances (version 2) (CSI 001) - Assessment published Dec 2008
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Aggregated emissions of acidifying pollutants (nitrogen oxides (NO x ), sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) and ammonia (NH 3 ) have decreased significantly in most of the EEA member countries between 1990 and 2006. This decrease has been achieved despite the increased rates of economic activity that have occurred during this period. Across the EEA-32 region, emissions of acidifying pollutants decreased from 1 549 kt to 790 kt between 1990 and 2006 - a 49% reduction. The EU-27 as a whole is on track to meet its target to reduce emissions from acidifying pollutants based on an aggregation of its NEC Directive ceilings for the three individual pollutants. However, a number of individual Member States anticipate missing their emission ceilings for one or more of the individual acidifying pollutants.
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Emissions of acidifying substances (version 2)
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Emissions of acidifying substances (version 2) (CSI 001) - Assessment published Jan 2010
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Aggregated emissions of acidifying pollutants (nitrogen oxides (NO x ), sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) and ammonia (NH 3 ) have decreased significantly in most of the EEA member countries between 1990 and 2007. This decrease has been achieved despite the increased rates of economic activity that have occurred during this period. Across the EEA-32 region, emissions of acidifying pollutants decreased from 1 545 kt to 775 kt between 1990 and 2007 - a 50% reduction. The EU-27 as a whole is on track to meet its target to reduce emissions from acidifying pollutants based on an aggregation of its NEC Directive ceilings for the three individual pollutants. However, a number of individual Member States anticipate missing their emission ceilings for one or more of the individual acidifying pollutants.
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Emissions of acidifying substances (version 2)
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Emissions of ozone precursors (CSI 002) - Assessment published Dec 2008
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The aggregated emissions of ground-level ozone precursor pollutants (nitrogen oxides (NO x ), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), carbon monoxide (CO) and methane (CH 4 )) have decreased by 37% across the EEA-32 region between 1990 and 2006. This decrease has been achieved mainly as a result of the introduction of catalytic converters for vehicles and to a lesser extent by a switch from petrol-fuelled cars to more diesel cars. Together these changes have significantly reduced emissions of NO x and CO from the road transport sector, the main source of ozone precursor emissions. The EU-27 is still some way from meeting its target to reduce emissions of two ozone precursors (NO x and NMVOC) for which emission limits exist under the NEC Directive. A number of individual Member States anticipate missing their ceilings for one or either of these two pollutants.
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Emissions of ozone precursors
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Emissions of ozone precursors (CSI 002) - Assessment published Jan 2010
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The aggregated emissions of ground-level ozone precursor pollutants (nitrogen oxides (NO x ), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), carbon monoxide (CO) and methane (CH 4 )) have decreased by 39% across the EEA-32 region between 1990 and 2007. This decrease has been achieved mainly as a result of the introduction of catalytic converters for vehicles and to a lesser extent by a switch from petrol-fuelled cars to more diesel cars. Together these changes have significantly reduced emissions of NO x and CO from the road transport sector, the main source of ozone precursor emissions. The EU-27 is still some way from meeting its target to reduce emissions of two ozone precursors (NO x and NMVOC) for which emission limits exist under the NEC Directive. A number of individual Member States anticipate missing their ceilings for one or either of these two pollutants.
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Emissions of ozone precursors
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Fertilizer consumption - outlook from EEA (Outlook 023) - Assessment published Jun 2007
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Mineral fertilizer use is expected to increase considerably in the new Member States, but remains lower than in the EU-15 in absolute terms; this may lead to increases in associated environmental pressures. Best practices for fertilizer handling could significantly reduce the environmental pressures.
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Fertilizer consumption - outlook from EEA
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Progress to greenhouse gas emission targets (CSI 011) - Assessment published Feb 2007
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EU-25 With existing policies and measures, EU-25 greenhouse gas emissions are projected to be approximately 2 % below 1990 level by 2010. With additional policies and measures greenhouse gas emissions are projected to be approximately 5 % below 1990 level (and slightly below 2004 level). EU-15 Latest projections for 2010 show that the combined effect of existing and additional domestic policies and measures, Kyoto mechanisms [1] and 'carbon sinks' [2] would bring emissions down to 8.0 % below the EU-15 base year level. This corresponds exactly to the reduction required under the Kyoto Protocol. With existing domestic [3] policies and measures, total EU-15 greenhouse gas emissions will only be 0.6 % below base-year levels in 2010 [4] . Taking into account additional domestic policies and measures being planned by Member States, a total EU-15 emissions reduction of 4.6 % is projected. This relies on the assumption that several Member States will cut emissions by more than is required to meet their national targets. The projected use of Kyoto mechanisms by ten Member States [5] will reduce emissions by 2010 by a further 2.6 %. Finally, the use of carbon sinks according to Articles 3.3 and 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol would contribute an additional 0.8 % (Figures 1 and 2). New Member States Seven new Member States project that they will meet or even over-achieve their Kyoto targets by 2010 with existing domestic policies and measures. However, in most countries emissions will increase between 2004 and 2010. Slovenia projects that it will meet its Kyoto target with additional policies and measures, and CO 2 removals from land-use change and forestry (Figure 3). Cyprus and Malta do not have a target under the Kyoto Protocol. Other EEA member countries EU acceding countries and Iceland were on track to meet or even over-achieve their Kyoto targets. In 2004, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein will with existing measures fall short of their target. Turkey and Croatia have ratified the United Nations framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC), but not the Kyoto Protocol. [1] Joint implementation, clean development mechanism and emissions trading according to the Kyoto Protocol, Art. 6, Art. 12, and Art. 17. These mechanisms allow industrialised countries with emissions limitation and reduction commitments to invest in emissions-savings projects in other countries and use the resulting emission credits to help meet their Kyoto targets. [2] According to Articles 3.3 and 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol, Parties can make use of CO 2 removals by land use change and forestry activities, i.e. carbon sinks, to achieve their targets. [3] Domestic policies and measures are those taking place within the national boundaries. Existing policies and measures are those for which one or more of the following applies: (a) national legislation is in force; (b) one or more voluntary agreements have been established; (c) financial resources have been allocated; (d) human resources have been mobilised; (e) an official government decision has been made and there is a clear commitment to proceed with implementation. Additional (planned) policies and measures are options under discussion with a realistic chance of being adopted and implemented in time to influence the emissions during the commitment period. [4] Without existing policies and measures, total EU-15 greenhouse gas emissions would have been higher than the base-year level. The total effect of the existing policies and measures compared to a theoretical reference scenario without any measures since 1990 would be greater than the 0.6 % reduction referred to here. [5] Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain.
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Progress to greenhouse gas emission targets
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Gross nutrient balance (CSI 025) - Assessment published Nov 2005
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At EU-15 level the gross nitrogen balance in 2000 was calculated to be 55 kg/ha, which is 16% lower than the balance estimate in 1990, which was 66 kg/ha. In 2000 the gross nitrogen balance ranged from 37 kg/ha (Italy) to 226 kg/ha (the Netherlands). All national gross nitrogen balances show a decline in estimates of the gross nitrogen balance (kg/ha) between 1990 and 2000, apart from Ireland (22% increase) and Spain (47% increase). The following Member States showed organic fertiliser application rates greater than the threshold of 170 kg/ha specified by the Nitrates Directive in 2000: the Netherlands (206 kg/ha) and Belgium (204 kg/ha). The general decline in nitrogen balance surpluses is due to a small decrease in nitrogen input rates (-1.0%) and a significant increase in nitrogen output rates (10%).
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Gross nutrient balance
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Growing season for agricultural crops (CLIM 030) - Assessment published Sep 2008
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There is evidence that the length of the growing season of several agricultural crops in Europe has changed. A longer growing season increases crop yields and insect populations and favours the introduction of new species in areas that were not previously suitable for these species. These observed facts are particularly important for the northern latitudes. Locally at southern latitudes, the trend is towards a shortening of the growing season, with consequent higher risk of frost damage from delayed spring frosts.
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Growing season for agricultural crops
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