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EEA-32 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions (APE 002) - Assessment published Feb 2010
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EEA-32 emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO x ) have decreased by 31% between 1990 and 2007. In 2007, the most significant sources of NO x emissions were the road transport sector (36%), combustion processes from within the energy industries sector (21%) and industrial energy use (15%) and the non-road transport sector (16%). The largest reduction of emissions since 1990 has occurred in the road transport sector. These reductions have been achieved despite the general increase in activity within this sector since the early 1990s and have primarily been achieved as a result of fitting three-way catalysts to petrol fuelled vehicles. In the electricity/energy production sector reductions have also occurred, in these instances as a result of measures such as the introduction of combustion modification technologies (such as use of low NO x burners), implementation of flue-gas abatement techniques (e.g. NO x scrubbers and selective (SCR) and selective non-catalytic (SNCR) reduction techniques) and fuel-switching from coal to gas. The National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD) specifies NO x emission ceilings for Member States that must be met by 2010. In general, the newer Member States have made substantially better progress towards meeting their respective NOx ceilings than the older Member States of the EU-15. Eleven of the twelve post-2004 Member States have already reduced emissions beyond what is required under the NECD, or are very close to doing so (Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia). In contrast, only one EU-15 Member State (Portugal) has emissions within its respective national ceiling. Many Member States therefore must make significant cuts to NO x emissions in the immediate coming years if they are to meet their obligations under the NECD. Environmental context: NO x contributes to acid deposition and eutrophication. The subsequent impacts of acid deposition can be significant, including adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems in rivers and lakes and damage to forests, crops and other vegetation. Eutrophication can lead to severe reductions in water quality with subsequent impacts including decreased biodiversity, changes in species composition and dominance, and toxicity effects. It is NO 2 that is associated with adverse affects on human health, as at high concentrations it can cause inflammation of the airways. NO 2 also contributes to the formation of secondary particulate aerosols and tropospheric ozone in the atmosphere - both are important air pollutants due to their adverse impacts on human health.
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EEA-32 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions
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EEA-32 Sulphur dioxide SO2 emissions (APE 001) - Assessment published Feb 2010
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EEA-32 emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) have decreased by 69% between 1990 and 2007. In 2007, the most significant source of SO 2 emissions was the energy industries sector (69%), followed by emissions occurring from 'Other (Non Energy)' (20%) and industrial energy use (12%). The reduction in emissions since 1990 has been achieved as a result of a combination of measures, including fuel-switching in energy-related sectors away from high sulphur-containing solid and liquid fuels to low sulphur fuels such as natural gas, the fitting of flue gas desulphurisation abatement technology in industrial facilities and the impact of European Community directives relating to the sulphur content of certain liquid fuels. Seventeen of the EU-27 Member States have already reduced their national SO 2 emissions below the level of the emission ceilings set in the National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD), while a number of others are close to meeting their ceilings. However, a small number of Member States still need to make significant further reductions in order to meet their respective ceilings under the NECD. Environmental context: Sulphur dioxide is emitted when fuels containing sulphur are combusted. It is a pollutant which contributes to acid deposition which in turn can lead to potential changes occurring in soil and water quality. The subsequent impacts of acid deposition can be significant, including adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems in rivers and lakes and damage to forests, crops and other vegetation. SO 2 emissions also contribute to formation of particulate matter in the atmosphere, an important air pollutant in terms of its adverse impact on human health.
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EEA-32 Sulphur dioxide SO2 emissions
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EEA32 Heavy metal (HM) emissions (APE 005) - Assessment published Feb 2010
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Across the EEA-32 countries, emissions of lead have decreased by 88%, mercury by 57% and lead by cadmium by 56% between 1990 and 2007. For each substance, the most significant sources in 2007 are from energy-related sources associated with fuel combustion, particularly from public power and heat generating facilities and in industrial facilities. Much progress has been made since the early 1990s in reducing point source emissions of cadmium and lead (e.g. emissions from industrial facilities). This has been achieved through improvements in for example abatement technologies for wastewater treatment, incinerators and in metal refining and smelting industries , and in some countries by the closure of older industrial facilities as a consequence of economic re-structuring. In the case of mercury, the observed decrease in emissions may be largely attributed to improved controls on mercury cells used in industrial processes (e.g. in the chlor-alkali process) including the replacement of old mercury cells by diaphragm or membrane cells, and the general decline of coal use across Europe as a result of fuel switching. The promotion of unleaded petrol within the EU and in other EEA member countries through a combination of fiscal and regulatory measures has been a particular success story. EU Member States have for example completely phased out the use of leaded petrol, a goal that was regulated by Directive 98/70/EC. From being the largest source of lead in 1990 when it contributed more than 70% of total emissions, emissions from the road transport sector decreased since then by more than 95%. Nevertheless, the road transport sector still remains an important source of lead, contributing around 25% of total lead emission in the EEA-32 region. However over the last 5 year period little progress has been made in reducing emissions further; total emissions of lead have remained largely constant. Environmental context: Heavy metals (such as cadmium, lead and mercury) are recognised as being toxic to biota. All have the quality of being progressively accumulated higher up the food chain, such that chronic exposure of lower organisms to much lower concentrations can expose predatory organisms, including humans, to potentially harmful concentrations. In humans they are also of direct concern because of their toxicity, their potential to cause cancer and their potential ability to cause harmful effects at low concentrations. The relative toxic/carcinogenic potencies of heavy metals are compound specific. Specifically, exposure to heavy metals has been linked with developmental retardation, various cancers and kidney damage. Metals are persistent throughout the environment, and cadmium, lead and mercury are among those heavy metals that are already a focus of international and EU action. These substances tend not just to be confined to a given geographical region, and thus are not always open to effective local control. For example, in the case of cadmium, much is found in fine particles which do not readily dry deposit, rather having long residence times in the atmosphere and hence are subject to long-range transport processes.
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EEA32 Heavy metal (HM) emissions
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EEA32 Persistent organic pollutant (POP) emissions (APE 006) - Assessment published Feb 2010
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EEA-32 emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), an important group of chemicals categorised as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), have decreased by 63% between 1990 and 2007. While the majority of individual countries report PAH emissions have fallen during this period, eight countries report increased emissions have occurred.
Important emission sources of PAH, include residential combustion processes (open fires, coal and wood burning for heating purposes etc), industrial metal production processes, and the road transport sector. Emissions from these sources have all declined since 1990 as a result of decreased residential use of coal, improvements in abatement technologies for metal refining and smelting, and stricter regulations on emissions from the road transport sector.
In 2007, the most significant source of PAHs was the 'other energy' sector accounting for 41% of total PAH emissions. This sector comprises emissions caused by fuel combustion mainly from the residential, commercial and institutional buildings sectors.
Environmental context: Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are chemical substances that persist in the environment, have potential to bioaccumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment. This group of substances includes unintentional by-products of industrial processes (such as PAHs, dioxins and furans) pesticides (such as DDT), and industrial chemicals (such as polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs). All share the property of being progressively accumulated higher up the food chain, such that chronic exposure of lower organisms to much lower concentrations can expose predatory organisms, including humans and wildlife, to potentially harmful concentrations. In humans they are also of concern for human health because of their toxicity, their potential to cause cancer and their ability to cause harmful effects at low concentrations. Their relative toxic/carcinogenic potencies are compound specific. POPs have also been shown to possess a number of toxicological properties. The major concern is often centred on their possible role in carcinogenic, immunological and reproductive effects but more recently concern has also been expressed over their possible harmful effects on human development.
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EEA32 Persistent organic pollutant (POP) emissions
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Exceedance of air quality limit values in urban areas (CSI 004) - Assessment published Dec 2009
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Particulate Matter (PM 10 ) In the period 1997-2007, 20-50 % of the urban population was potentially exposed to ambient air concentrations of particulate matter (PM 10 ) in excess of the EU limit value set for the protection of human health (50 microgram /m 3 daily mean not be exceeded more than 35 days a calendar year). There was no discernible trend over the period (Figure 1). Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) In the period 1997-2007, 13-41 % of the urban population was potentially exposed to ambient air nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) concentrations above the EU limit value set for the protection of human health (40 microgram NO 2 /m 3 annual mean). There was a slight downwards trend over the period (Figure 1). Ozone (O 3 ) In the period 1997-2007, 14-62 % of the urban population in Europe was exposed to ambient ozone concentrations exceeding the EU target value set for the protection of human health (120 microgram O 3 /m 3 daily maximum 8-hourly average, not to be exceeded more than 25 times a calendar year by 2010). The 62 % of the urban population exposed to ambient ozone concentrations over the EU target value was recorded in 2003, which was the record year. There was no discernible trend over the period (Figure 1). Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) In the period 1997-2007, the fraction of the urban population in EEA-32 member countries that is potentially exposed to ambient air concentrations of sulphur dioxide in excess of the EU limit value set for the protection of human health (125 microgram SO 2 /m 3 daily mean not to be exceeded more than three days a year), decreased to less than 1%, and as such the EU limit value set is close to being met everywhere in the urban background (Figure 1).
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Exceedance of air quality limit values in urban areas
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Exceedance of air quality limit values in urban areas (CSI 004) - Assessment published Aug 2010
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Particulate Matter (PM 10 ) In the period 1997-2008, 18-50 % of the urban population was potentially exposed to ambient air concentrations of particulate matter (PM 10 ) in excess of the EU limit value set for the protection of human health (50 microgram /m 3 daily mean not be exceeded more than 35 days a calendar year); (Figure 1). Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) In the period 1997-2008, 6-41 % of the urban population was potentially exposed to ambient air nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) concentrations above the EU limit value set for the protection of human health (40 microgram NO 2 /m 3 annual mean). There was a slight downwards trend over the period (Figure 1). Ozone (O 3 ) In the period 1997-2008, 13-62 % of the urban population in Europe was exposed to ambient ozone concentrations exceeding the EU target value set for the protection of human health (120 microgram O 3 /m 3 daily maximum 8-hourly average, not to be exceeded more than 25 times a calendar year by 2010). The 62 % of the urban population exposed to ambient ozone concentrations over the EU target value was recorded in 2003, which was the record year. There was no discernible trend over the period (Figure 1). Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) In the period 1997-2008, the fraction of the urban population in EEA-32 member countries that is potentially exposed to ambient air concentrations of sulphur dioxide in excess of the EU limit value set for the protection of human health (125 microgram SO 2 /m 3 daily mean not to be exceeded more than three days a year), decreased to less than 1 %, and as such the EU limit value set is close to being met everywhere in the urban background (Figure 1).
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Exceedance of air quality limit values in urban areas
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Exposure of ecosystems to acidification, eutrophication and ozone (CSI 005) - Assessment published Dec 2009
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Eutrophication The magnitude of the risk of ecosystem eutrophication and its geographical coverage has diminished only slightly over the years. The predictions for 2010 and 2020 indicate that the risk is still widespread over Europe. This is in conflict with the EU's long-term objective of not exceeding critical loads of airborne acidifying and eutrophying substances in sensitive ecosystem areas (National Emission Ceilings Directive, 6th Environmental Action Programme, Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution). Acidification The situation has considerably improved and it is predicted to improve further. The interim environmental objective for 2010 (National Emission Ceilings Directive) will most likely not be met completely. However, the European ecosystem areas where the critical load will be exceeded is predicted to have declined by more than 80 % in 2010 with 1990 as a base year. By 2020, it is expected that the risk of ecosystem acidification will only be an issue at some hot spots, in particular at the border area between the Netherlands and Germany. Ozone (O 3 ) Most vegetation and agricultural crops are exposed to ozone levels exceeding the long term objective given in the EU Air Quality Directive. A significant fraction is also exposed to levels above the 2010 target value defined in the Directive. The effect-related accumulated concentrations, addressing exposure of crops to ozone over several summer months, tend to increase.
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Exposure of ecosystems to acidification, eutrophication and ozone
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Exposure of ecosystems to acidification, eutrophication and ozone (CSI 005) - Assessment published Aug 2010
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Eutrophication The magnitude of the risk of ecosystem eutrophication and its geographical coverage has diminished only slightly over the years. The predictions for 2010 and 2020 indicate that the risk is still widespread over Europe. This is in conflict with the EU's long-term objective of not exceeding critical loads of airborne acidifying and eutrophying substances in sensitive ecosystem areas (National Emission Ceilings Directive, 6th Environmental Action Programme, Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution).
Acidification The situation has considerably improved and it is predicted to improve further. The interim environmental objective for 2010 (National Emission Ceilings Directive) will most likely not be met completely. However, the European ecosystem areas where the critical load will be exceeded is predicted to have declined by more than 80 % in 2010 with 1990 as a base year. By 2020, it is expected that the risk of ecosystem acidification will only be an issue at some hot spots, in particular at the border area between the Netherlands and Germany. Ozone (O 3 )
Most vegetation and agricultural crops are exposed to ozone levels exceeding the long term objective given in the EU Air Quality Directive. A significant fraction is also exposed to levels above the 2010 target value defined in the Directive. Concentrations in 2007 were lower than in 2006. The effect-related accumulated concentrations, addressing exposure of crops to ozone over several summer months, shows large year-to-year variations, there is a non-significance tendency to increase.
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Exposure of ecosystems to acidification, eutrophication and ozone
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Global and European temperature (CSI 012/CLIM 001) - Assessment published Jun 2010
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Global The global (land and ocean) average temperature increase between 1850 and 2009 was 0.74 0 C using combined Hadley centre and CRU datasets compared to the 1850 - 1899 period average temperature and 0.84 0 C using GISS dataset compared to the 1880 - 1899 period average temperature. All used temperature records show the 2000s decade (2000 - 2009) was the warmest decade. The rate of global average temperature change has increased from around 0.06 0 C per decade over last 100 years, to 0.16 - 0.20 0 C in last decade. The best estimates for projected global warming in this century are a further rise in the global average temperature from 1.8 to 4.0 0 C for different scenarios that assume no further/additional action to limit emissions. The EU global temperature target is projected to be exceeded between 2040 and 2060, taking into account all six IPCC scenarios. Europe Europe has warmed more than the global average. The annual average temperature for the European land area up to 2009 was 1.3 0 C above 1850 - 1899 average temperature, and for the combined land and ocean area 1 0 C above. Considering the land area, nine out of the last 12 years were among the warmest years since 1850. High-temperature extremes like hot days, tropical nights, and heat waves have become more frequent, while low - temperature extremes (e.g. cold spells, frost days) have become less frequent in Europe. The average length of summer heat waves over Western Europe doubled over the period 1850 to 2009 and the frequency of hot days almost tripled. The annual average temperature in Europe is projected to rise in this century with the largest warming over eastern and northern Europe in winter, and over Southern Europe in summer. High temperature events across Europe including temperature extremes such as heat waves are projected to become more frequent, intense and longer this century, whereas winter temperature variability and the number of cold and frost extremes are projected to decrease further. According to the projections, the most affected European regions are going to be the Iberian and the Apennine Peninsula and south - eastern Europe.
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Use of cleaner and alternative fuels (CSI 037) - Assessment published Sep 2010
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The specifications for low-sulphur fuels (maximum of 50 ppm in 2005) are met in all EU-27 Member States. In 2006, there is already a significant share of zero-sulphur fuels in the EU as many Member States have introduced incentives to promote these fuels ahead of the mandatory deadline (maximum of 10 ppm in 2009). The penetration of biofuels is still relatively low, reaching 2.9 % in the EU-27 in 2007. However, this share has increased by almost 1 % from 2006 to 2007, in view of the 5.75 % objective for 2010.
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Use of cleaner and alternative fuels
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